tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32315433266273741962024-03-13T19:43:39.741-07:00solution centerbookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.comBlogger9125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-21429922110091480122012-12-15T04:35:00.003-08:002012-12-15T04:35:08.668-08:00THE NATURE OF POLITICAL SYSTEM<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="srtitle"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Political system</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> the set of
formal legal institutions that constitute a “government” or a “</span><a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/563762/state"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">state</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.” This is the definition adopted by
many studies of the legal or constitutional arrangements of advanced political
orders. More broadly defined, however, the term comprehends actual as well as
prescribed forms of political behaviour, not only the legal organization of the
</span><a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/563762/state"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">state</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> but also the reality of how the state
functions. Still more broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of
“processes of interaction” or as a subsystem of the social system interacting
with other nonpolitical subsystems, such as the economic system.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A <b>political system</b> is a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System" title="System"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">system</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics" title="Politics"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">politics</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government" title="Government"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">government</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. It is usually compared to the <span style="color: blue;">legal
system</span>, <span style="color: blue;">economic system</span>, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_system" title="Cultural system"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cultural system</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, and other </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">social systems</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more
complex system of categories involving the views: who should have authority,
how religious questions should be handled, and what the government's influence
on its people and economy should be.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Political
Science is a discipline in itself, because the variety of political systems
that are present on our world, or which have been present in the past, is as
widely varying as chemical elements or subatomic particles. Worse, for the
political scientist, these systems are not governed by laws of nature that are
unchanging, but by humans who, by nature, change constantly.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This
page, then, cannot be an exhaustive study of various political systems.
However, the major points can be addressed and the most common variants
described. Students of politics can take the information presented here and use
it as a basis for research into more focused topics.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One
of the problems in the creation of a topic like Political Systems is this: what
framework does one use to present the topic? Should it be a survey of political
theory, reaching back to the Greeks and Romans, and pulling in Hobbes,
Montesquieu, Marx, and Paine? Should it describe past political systems like
the U.S. under the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html">Articles
of Confederation</a>, or France under monarchy, or Sparta's democratic
oligarchy? Should it look at modern democracies and contrast their details?</span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3231543326627374196" name="types"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">First, we will discuss the major types of political systems,
describing them in very general terms.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Anarchy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Anarchy is the complete lack of political systems. In a way, it is the state of
nature, where there are no rules and the strongest have power over the weakest.
Though nations might devolve into anarchy following internal strife or natural
disaster, anarchy cannot be sustained. At a minimum, an anarchic nation will
produce a tyrannical leader, and some sense of order eventually develops.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dictatorship</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
In a dictatorship, one person has absolute power. Though there is typically a
military and a bureaucracy in such a nation, and though there are typically
laws to dictate everyday goings-on, the dictator has complete discretion.
Typically, the dictator takes on, or assumes, an aura of a deity, or a cult of
personality emerges. Examples include Mussolini's Italy, Hitler's Germany, and
Kim's North Korea. Dictatorial systems are often based on military power, and
the term "military dictatorship" is used.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Autocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
An autocracy is the same as a dictatorship — but the term is often used to
convey something less sinister than "dictatorship" implies. An
autocrat may have less a cult of personality than a dictator has.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Oligarchy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
An oligarchy is, literally, rule by a few. Oligarchies are often the evolution
of dictatorships from rule by a single person to rule by a small group of
people. Examples include England in 1215, when the King was forced by nobles to
sign the Magna Carta, or South Africa following the alliance of the English-
and Afrikaans-speaking elite.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Theocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A theocracy is an oligarchy based on religion — the group is ruled by the
group's spiritual leaders. Religion is a powerful human phenomenon, and
religious leaders can often exert great influence over the group's actions.
Examples include many modern Islamic states, such as Iran or Afghanistan under
the Taliban, and Puritan Massachusetts.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Monarchy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A monarchy is best described in the same way that a dictatorship is. One key
difference is that dictatorship is used as a derisive term, and monarchy is
seen as much more benign. Historically, however, kings and queens have been as
brutal as many modern dictators. The major difference is the transfer of power.
In a dictatorship, power is often not transferred at all — the death of the
dictator signals the end of the dictatorship; or it is transferred to a
hand-picked successor. Monarchies typically have much stricter, hereditary
systems of succession, such that a monarch's first-born son is elevated to king
upon the monarch's death. Past and present examples include Saudi Arabia,
England, and Thailand.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Democracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Though the word "democracy" is used in many contexts today, strictly
speaking, a democracy is a system where the people rule. Each decision that
needs to be made is made by the people <i>in toto</i>. Such systems are tenable
only in groups up to a certain size — when larger, debate and voting become
lengthy and cumbersome.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Representative
democracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> or <b>Indirect democracy</b><br />
As pure democracy quickly becomes unworkable, a variation on the form quickly
evolved. In this system, representatives of large groups of people are selected
and these representatives meet to conduct the government. The selection of
representatives is typically via election, where a selection of candidates for
the position are put before the people, and by majority vote, one of them is
chosen. Several levels of indirection are possible as the system grows: for
example, in the United States prior to the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_Am17.html">17th Amendment</a>,
Senators were chosen by state legislators, which were chosen by the people.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Plutocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
In a plutocracy, the ones with the most resources are the ones who rule. The
most common place to see plutocracy in action is in emerging democracies, where
the leaders look to wealthy citizens for guidance on governmental affairs. Such
contacts do not necessarily have to approach plutocracy, but because of the
human propensity for attraction to wealth and the human propensity for
attraction to power, the combination of the two can, at a minimum, radiate
plutocratic features.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aristocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
In an aristocracy, the upper class of citizens, however that might be defined
in any one society, holds the power. Heredity, or rule by right of birth, plays
a large role in continuing power. Aristocracy is closely related to both
plutocracy and monarchy. In a typical system, such as that of medieval England,
one family from a group of aristocratic families rises above the rest, either
through military conquest or agreement between the families.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Meritocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
"Meritocracy" is a phrase that has some political baggage attached to
it, not so much as a political system in itself, but as a modifier of another
type of system. Colloquially, then, a meritocracy is a political system whereby
the most deserving people lead. But it does have a more formal definition:
where the leaders are chosen from the masses based on those who have achieved
the most. "Achievement" is a vague term, and can be societally based,
such as those who are the best educated, those with the most money or land, or
those with the most fame; in this way, an aristocracy, plutocracy, or even a
theocracy can be called a meritocracy.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stratocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A stratocracy is a government run directly by the military; stratocracies are
more commonly known as military dictatorships. There have been relatively few pure
stratocracies over time, though there have been many nations with a strong
military but with (at least nominal) civilian rule. See "The
Military" below.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cleptocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A cleptocracy is generally a more specific description of a dictatorship:
literally, a cleptocracy is a government sustained by stealing. As such, the
circle of power must necessarily be a small one. The rulers and his or her
inner circle steal national resources or the profits thereof (such as diamonds
or oil); use foreign aid for personal gain; and use the national treasury to
further personal aims. Because such actions would rarely be tolerated by an
informed public, the press is often complicit or government-run and democratic
features like elections are for show or are nonexistent.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Corpocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Following a 2010 Supreme Court ruling (<i>Citizens United v Federal Election Commission</i>),
this term began to appear in the popular media. The decision dictated that
campaign contribution limits on corporate donors were unconstitutional, and it
was feared that a subsequent increase of corporate funding would lead to
members of Congress being "owned" by sponsoring companies. Such
members of Congress would then be more interested in furthering the interests
of the corporations than of the people.</span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3231543326627374196" name="sep"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Regardless
of the type of system used by any nation or society, there is a very typical
and well-used set of divisions in governments. These are characterized by five
groups: the executive, the legislature, the judiciary, the military, and the
church. In some systems, one or more of these divisions is not present — some
dictatorships will have no legislature, for example, and the United States has
no state church. The remainder of this page will look at each division in a
general sense, and the role of the division.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Executive Branch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Generally
speaking, the executive branch of government executes the laws created by the
legislative branch, though this general rule is modified in some political
systems. For example, in a totalitarian dictatorship, there may be no
legislature, and hence the executive also makes laws.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
executive branch is sometimes divided into two parts, a head-of-state and a
chief executive. The head-of-state is the person, or group, that represents the
nation to other nations. The chief executive is responsible for all those roles
of the executive that are not handled by the head-of-state. The power held by
these two positions is not consistent. In Britain, for example, the
head-of-state is the monarch, who has little actual power over the executive
branch. The Prime Minister is the chief executive and holds a great deal of
power. In France, the President is the head-of-state and has a great deal of
power over the executive. The Prime Minister has been likened to a junior
partner in the executive.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Israeli President is elected by the Knesset and is largely ceremonial, much
like Britain's monarch. The Prime Minister holds the bulk of the power. In
Russia, the roles are again reversed, with the President holding the bulk of
the power and the Prime Minister being a junior partner. In the United States,
the President is both the head-of-state and the chief executive.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">While
the head-of-state is almost always a single person, the chief executive has
sometimes been a group, or committee, or people.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
method for choosing the executive varies greatly. In some cases, such as in
Britain, the head-of-state is a hereditary monarch and the chief executive is
the Prime Minister of the Parliament. The people, then, have no choice in the
head-of-state and only a small segment of the population have a choice of the
Prime Minister (the Prime Minister is chosen from all the Members of Parliament
from the majority party — each MP is elected in a local election). In Israel,
the President is chosen by the Knesset and the Prime Minister is a Member of
the Knesset. In the United States, the President is elected, indirectly through
the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_elec.html">Electoral
College</a>, by the people.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terms
vary. Monarchs generally hold life terms. Members of parliaments hold maximum
terms, though votes of no confidence in parliament can force new elections
sooner. Other executives hold their positions for a fixed term, such as in the
United States. In dictatorial systems, terms are for life.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Legislative Branch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Generally
speaking, the legislative branch makes the laws. Legislatures usually consist
of many members chosen by the people of the country. There are several basic
models of legislature that have been and are used in the world.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
most prevalent system is the parliamentary system. In this type of system, the
nation is broken up into small units, divided variously by geography,
ethnicity, or population. Each unit elects one or more members of parliament
from a slate of candidates. After election day, the party with the majority of
members becomes the Majority Party and chooses the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
If no party has a majority, parties negotiate divisions of power and form
coalitions. Once a coalition is established, the government is formed.
Coalitions are often fragile, as the majority voice in the coalition can offend
the minority (or minorities) and cause members of the coalition to abandon the
coalition. Parliamentary legislatures remain in power for a fixed term or until
a vote of no confidence is taken and the majority loses the vote.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
another type of parliamentary setup, there are no political divisions —
national elections are held and people vote for a single party. When the votes
are counted, seats in the parliament are given on a percentage basis to each
party. The party then decides who to appoint to each seat it is apportioned. In
this type of system, minority voices are more likely to be heard and coalition
governments more likely to be formed (in a districted system, is it possible
for one party to win 50-percent-plus-one of all districts and acquire 100
percent of the seats in parliament; in a national election system, this cannot
happen).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
a system like that of the United States, members of the legislature hold their
office for a certain fixed term. After elections, a majority party is
determined, but there is no such thing as a vote of no confidence. Though
parties play a major role in the selection of legislative leaders, individual
members of the legislature are free to vote however they wish without fear of
bringing down the government as in a parliamentary system.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Another
common system involves a legislature composed of one party. Such systems are
common in communist nations, so examples include the USSR's Supreme Soviet and
China's National People's Congress. Though dissent is generally allowed in such
a system, the decisions of the party are rubber-stamped by the legislature.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Legislatures
can have one house (unicameral) or two houses (bicameral). A 1973 survey found
that nations with a legislature were nearly evenly divided between unicameral
and bicameral. The role of the two houses vary from one nation to another. In
the United States, the two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate,
have roughly equal powers, and legislation passed by one house must be passed
by the other to become law (in many systems, the executive must also approve of
any legislation passed by the legislature). In Britain, the House of Commons is
an elected body with the majority of the power; the House of Lords can amend
and delay bills passed by the House of Commons, but may not cancel them. The
House of Lords has no power over taxation.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Judicial Branch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Generally,
the judicial branch interprets the laws of the nation. Because of the nature of
law enforcement, the judicial branch often has the largest membership. In the
United States, for example, there is one executive (two, if the Vice President
is counted), 535 legislators, and thousands of federal judges.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
structure of the judiciary varies greatly from one nation to another, based on
the legal tradition. The most familiar may be that of the United States, where
there is a Supreme Court that is the final court of appeals in the nation.
Below the Supreme Court are a series of inferior courts, starting with the
federal court where most cases are heard, and several levels of appeals courts.
Britain has a similar setup, but the House of Lords is the court of final
appeal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Israel
has several judicial systems — the secular system is divided into general law
courts and tribunals. The general court has a Supreme Court, district courts,
and magistrates. Personal matters, such as marriage and divorce disputes, are
handled by religious courts. There are four systems of religious court; Jewish,
Christian, Muslim, and Druze.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Selection
of judges is another point of comparison. Generally, the selection process is
divided between appointed and elected. Appointed judges are thought to be free
from political pressure, and thus are able to best represent the people and the
law. Elected judges are thought to best represent the will of the people. Terms
vary from life to several years, in both systems of selection.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Other
judicial concepts vary from nation to nation. For example, in the United
States, each state maintains its own judicial system separate, but related to,
the national judiciary. Concepts of "innocent until proven guilty" or
"guilty until proven innocent" vary, and does the concept of the jury
trial. These concepts are highly tied to the legal tradition of each nation.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Military</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Almost
every society in known history has or has had a military structure. It is a
constant in human history that societies will fight over resources, and to
fight effectively requires a trained class of persons — soldiers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
some nations, the military is a dictatorship, and the head of government is a
military officer. This is in contrast to other dictatorships where the military
is completely subservient to the ruler. In Hitler's Germany, for example, the
military was a strong tool of the Nazi Party, but Germany was not run by the
military. The same can be said for the United States which, since World War II
has maintained a very strong military, but where the military has no actual
power in the government. In the case of the United States, the military is an
institution of the Executive, and not a separate branch of government. A lack
of power does not mean a lack of influence, though. In the United States,
politicians vie for military spending in their districts, and the prosecution
of war can lead to serious changes in the economy and in public opinion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ancient
Sparta is a good example of a nation where the military was a distinct branch
of government — in fact, Aristotle said that Sparta was an unending
generalship. The militaristic nature of Sparta is generally overstated, though,
as there were some democratic institutions in place. However, most citizens
were expected to be soldiers — only those too weak to soldier were permitted to
be civilians.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Military
dictatorships are not uncommon even today. Some world leaders came to power as
the result of military coups. The leader may be a single person, such as
Libya's Colonel Moammar Al Qadhafi and Pakistan's General Pervez Musharaf, or a
junta, a committee, as in Myanmar (Burma). Other historical examples include
Argentina in the late 1970's and early 1980's, or Uganda under General Idi
Amin.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Church</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
some nations, the church has no role in government, as in the United States.
However, in other states, even those that are not theocracies, the church has a
great deal of influence. Note that it must be distinguished between a formal
national church and personal religious beliefs. While the United States has no
national church, individual leaders often look to their religious faith for
strength of answers. This is in contrast, however, to those nations where the
national church has a voice in the conduct of government. Such church
involvement in government is also known as clericalism.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
most obvious place where church has a role in government is in the theocracy,
most often seen today in the Islamic state. In such a state, the leaders are
often religious clerics. Legal systems might adhere to Shariah, or Islamic law
as presented in the Koran. In Iran under the Ayatollah Khomeini, the
head-of-state was a cleric with broad powers; since his death, however,
executive power is held by the President, elected by the people. The
legislature, the Majlis, is elected by universal suffrage, but all legislative
actions must be approved by a Council of Guardians composed of clergy and
jurists. The Council judges the suitability of each presidential candidate and
of every candidate for seats in the Majlis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
Israel, Judaism is not the official religion, but its influence is seen
throughout its political structure. An example already given involves the
provision of different religious court systems. Judaic principles can be seen
in various places, such as the recognition of the Sabbath and the use of kosher
cooking in state kitchens. However, divisions within Judaism, between the
majority and the minority ultra orthodox and modern orthodox sects, have raised
issues of late as to where religion and government should come together and
where they should separate.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
Britain, the Church of England has a role in government in several key ways.
The head-of-state is also the Supreme Governor of the Church, and appoints
archbishops, bishops, and deans on the advice of the Prime Minister. In
addition, 26 members of the House of Lords are the archbishops and bishops of
the Church.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3231543326627374196" name="misc"></a> There are a few other notable differences between
political systems that should be mentioned, and which can be used to
characterize a nation's government.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">First
is in the distribution of power. As nations grow larger, it is often desirable
to divide the nation into smaller units, such as provinces, as in Canada, or
states as in the United States or Brazil. With smaller nations, division is not
always necessary. With this division comes three typical systems for dividing
power. The first is the unitary system, where there is no actual division of
power. Unitary systems include Britain, France, and, oddly for its size, China.
The unitary system is by far the most common in the modern world. It is simple,
with only one level of government to contend with.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Many
larger nations, however, have adopted a <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_fedr.html">federal system</a>,
where the nation has certain powers, but smaller political divisions enjoy a
certain degree of autonomy and sovereignty. The United States is the classic
example, but Canada, Australia, Russia, and Brazil all also have federal
systems. Other nations not quite so large, such as Nigeria, Switzerland, India,
and Mexico, opted for federal systems to ease tensions in various ethnic,
linguistic, or regional groups within the nation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
last type of distribution is the confederation. There are no surviving
confederations today. In a confederation, the national government is very weak
compared to those of the internal political divisions. The United States under
the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html">Articles of
Confederation</a> is one example. Germany in the early 1800's, and Switzerland
through most of the 1800's also used confederal systems. Many consider the
European Community (EC) to be a confederal system, and over time, as more power
is assumed by the EC, it may evolve into a true confederacy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
REFERENCES</div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Almond, Gabriel A., et al. <i>Comparative Politics
Today: A World View</i> (Seventh Edition). 2000. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0316034975">ISBN
0-316-03497-5</a></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">June 25, 2011.</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ferris, Kerry, and Jill Stein. The Real World An
Introduction to Sociology. 3rd ed. New York City: W W Norton & Co,
2012. Print.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"political system". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 02 Dec. 2012 <<a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36699/Confederations-and-federations">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36699/Confederations-and-federations</a>>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
bookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-92157729519718658952012-12-15T04:35:00.001-08:002012-12-15T04:35:03.822-08:00THE NATURE OF POLITICAL SYSTEM<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span class="srtitle"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Political system</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">,</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> the set of
formal legal institutions that constitute a “government” or a “</span><a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/563762/state"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">state</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.” This is the definition adopted by
many studies of the legal or constitutional arrangements of advanced political
orders. More broadly defined, however, the term comprehends actual as well as
prescribed forms of political behaviour, not only the legal organization of the
</span><a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/563762/state"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">state</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> but also the reality of how the state
functions. Still more broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of
“processes of interaction” or as a subsystem of the social system interacting
with other nonpolitical subsystems, such as the economic system.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A <b>political system</b> is a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System" title="System"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">system</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics" title="Politics"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">politics</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government" title="Government"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">government</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. It is usually compared to the <span style="color: blue;">legal
system</span>, <span style="color: blue;">economic system</span>, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_system" title="Cultural system"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cultural system</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, and other </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">social systems</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more
complex system of categories involving the views: who should have authority,
how religious questions should be handled, and what the government's influence
on its people and economy should be.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Political
Science is a discipline in itself, because the variety of political systems
that are present on our world, or which have been present in the past, is as
widely varying as chemical elements or subatomic particles. Worse, for the
political scientist, these systems are not governed by laws of nature that are
unchanging, but by humans who, by nature, change constantly.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This
page, then, cannot be an exhaustive study of various political systems.
However, the major points can be addressed and the most common variants
described. Students of politics can take the information presented here and use
it as a basis for research into more focused topics.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One
of the problems in the creation of a topic like Political Systems is this: what
framework does one use to present the topic? Should it be a survey of political
theory, reaching back to the Greeks and Romans, and pulling in Hobbes,
Montesquieu, Marx, and Paine? Should it describe past political systems like
the U.S. under the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html">Articles
of Confederation</a>, or France under monarchy, or Sparta's democratic
oligarchy? Should it look at modern democracies and contrast their details?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3231543326627374196" name="types"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">First, we will discuss the major types of political systems,
describing them in very general terms.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Anarchy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Anarchy is the complete lack of political systems. In a way, it is the state of
nature, where there are no rules and the strongest have power over the weakest.
Though nations might devolve into anarchy following internal strife or natural
disaster, anarchy cannot be sustained. At a minimum, an anarchic nation will
produce a tyrannical leader, and some sense of order eventually develops.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dictatorship</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
In a dictatorship, one person has absolute power. Though there is typically a
military and a bureaucracy in such a nation, and though there are typically
laws to dictate everyday goings-on, the dictator has complete discretion.
Typically, the dictator takes on, or assumes, an aura of a deity, or a cult of
personality emerges. Examples include Mussolini's Italy, Hitler's Germany, and
Kim's North Korea. Dictatorial systems are often based on military power, and
the term "military dictatorship" is used.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Autocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
An autocracy is the same as a dictatorship — but the term is often used to
convey something less sinister than "dictatorship" implies. An
autocrat may have less a cult of personality than a dictator has.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Oligarchy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
An oligarchy is, literally, rule by a few. Oligarchies are often the evolution
of dictatorships from rule by a single person to rule by a small group of
people. Examples include England in 1215, when the King was forced by nobles to
sign the Magna Carta, or South Africa following the alliance of the English-
and Afrikaans-speaking elite.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Theocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A theocracy is an oligarchy based on religion — the group is ruled by the
group's spiritual leaders. Religion is a powerful human phenomenon, and
religious leaders can often exert great influence over the group's actions.
Examples include many modern Islamic states, such as Iran or Afghanistan under
the Taliban, and Puritan Massachusetts.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Monarchy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A monarchy is best described in the same way that a dictatorship is. One key
difference is that dictatorship is used as a derisive term, and monarchy is
seen as much more benign. Historically, however, kings and queens have been as
brutal as many modern dictators. The major difference is the transfer of power.
In a dictatorship, power is often not transferred at all — the death of the
dictator signals the end of the dictatorship; or it is transferred to a
hand-picked successor. Monarchies typically have much stricter, hereditary
systems of succession, such that a monarch's first-born son is elevated to king
upon the monarch's death. Past and present examples include Saudi Arabia,
England, and Thailand.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Democracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Though the word "democracy" is used in many contexts today, strictly
speaking, a democracy is a system where the people rule. Each decision that
needs to be made is made by the people <i>in toto</i>. Such systems are tenable
only in groups up to a certain size — when larger, debate and voting become
lengthy and cumbersome.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Representative
democracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> or <b>Indirect democracy</b><br />
As pure democracy quickly becomes unworkable, a variation on the form quickly
evolved. In this system, representatives of large groups of people are selected
and these representatives meet to conduct the government. The selection of
representatives is typically via election, where a selection of candidates for
the position are put before the people, and by majority vote, one of them is
chosen. Several levels of indirection are possible as the system grows: for
example, in the United States prior to the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_Am17.html">17th Amendment</a>,
Senators were chosen by state legislators, which were chosen by the people.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Plutocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
In a plutocracy, the ones with the most resources are the ones who rule. The
most common place to see plutocracy in action is in emerging democracies, where
the leaders look to wealthy citizens for guidance on governmental affairs. Such
contacts do not necessarily have to approach plutocracy, but because of the
human propensity for attraction to wealth and the human propensity for
attraction to power, the combination of the two can, at a minimum, radiate
plutocratic features.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aristocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
In an aristocracy, the upper class of citizens, however that might be defined
in any one society, holds the power. Heredity, or rule by right of birth, plays
a large role in continuing power. Aristocracy is closely related to both
plutocracy and monarchy. In a typical system, such as that of medieval England,
one family from a group of aristocratic families rises above the rest, either
through military conquest or agreement between the families.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Meritocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
"Meritocracy" is a phrase that has some political baggage attached to
it, not so much as a political system in itself, but as a modifier of another
type of system. Colloquially, then, a meritocracy is a political system whereby
the most deserving people lead. But it does have a more formal definition:
where the leaders are chosen from the masses based on those who have achieved
the most. "Achievement" is a vague term, and can be societally based,
such as those who are the best educated, those with the most money or land, or
those with the most fame; in this way, an aristocracy, plutocracy, or even a
theocracy can be called a meritocracy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stratocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A stratocracy is a government run directly by the military; stratocracies are
more commonly known as military dictatorships. There have been relatively few pure
stratocracies over time, though there have been many nations with a strong
military but with (at least nominal) civilian rule. See "The
Military" below.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cleptocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A cleptocracy is generally a more specific description of a dictatorship:
literally, a cleptocracy is a government sustained by stealing. As such, the
circle of power must necessarily be a small one. The rulers and his or her
inner circle steal national resources or the profits thereof (such as diamonds
or oil); use foreign aid for personal gain; and use the national treasury to
further personal aims. Because such actions would rarely be tolerated by an
informed public, the press is often complicit or government-run and democratic
features like elections are for show or are nonexistent.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Corpocracy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Following a 2010 Supreme Court ruling (<i>Citizens United v Federal Election Commission</i>),
this term began to appear in the popular media. The decision dictated that
campaign contribution limits on corporate donors were unconstitutional, and it
was feared that a subsequent increase of corporate funding would lead to
members of Congress being "owned" by sponsoring companies. Such
members of Congress would then be more interested in furthering the interests
of the corporations than of the people.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3231543326627374196" name="sep"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Regardless
of the type of system used by any nation or society, there is a very typical
and well-used set of divisions in governments. These are characterized by five
groups: the executive, the legislature, the judiciary, the military, and the
church. In some systems, one or more of these divisions is not present — some
dictatorships will have no legislature, for example, and the United States has
no state church. The remainder of this page will look at each division in a
general sense, and the role of the division.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Executive Branch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Generally
speaking, the executive branch of government executes the laws created by the
legislative branch, though this general rule is modified in some political
systems. For example, in a totalitarian dictatorship, there may be no
legislature, and hence the executive also makes laws.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
executive branch is sometimes divided into two parts, a head-of-state and a
chief executive. The head-of-state is the person, or group, that represents the
nation to other nations. The chief executive is responsible for all those roles
of the executive that are not handled by the head-of-state. The power held by
these two positions is not consistent. In Britain, for example, the
head-of-state is the monarch, who has little actual power over the executive
branch. The Prime Minister is the chief executive and holds a great deal of
power. In France, the President is the head-of-state and has a great deal of
power over the executive. The Prime Minister has been likened to a junior
partner in the executive.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Israeli President is elected by the Knesset and is largely ceremonial, much
like Britain's monarch. The Prime Minister holds the bulk of the power. In
Russia, the roles are again reversed, with the President holding the bulk of
the power and the Prime Minister being a junior partner. In the United States,
the President is both the head-of-state and the chief executive.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">While
the head-of-state is almost always a single person, the chief executive has
sometimes been a group, or committee, or people.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
method for choosing the executive varies greatly. In some cases, such as in
Britain, the head-of-state is a hereditary monarch and the chief executive is
the Prime Minister of the Parliament. The people, then, have no choice in the
head-of-state and only a small segment of the population have a choice of the
Prime Minister (the Prime Minister is chosen from all the Members of Parliament
from the majority party — each MP is elected in a local election). In Israel,
the President is chosen by the Knesset and the Prime Minister is a Member of
the Knesset. In the United States, the President is elected, indirectly through
the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_elec.html">Electoral
College</a>, by the people.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terms
vary. Monarchs generally hold life terms. Members of parliaments hold maximum
terms, though votes of no confidence in parliament can force new elections
sooner. Other executives hold their positions for a fixed term, such as in the
United States. In dictatorial systems, terms are for life.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Legislative Branch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Generally
speaking, the legislative branch makes the laws. Legislatures usually consist
of many members chosen by the people of the country. There are several basic
models of legislature that have been and are used in the world.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
most prevalent system is the parliamentary system. In this type of system, the
nation is broken up into small units, divided variously by geography,
ethnicity, or population. Each unit elects one or more members of parliament
from a slate of candidates. After election day, the party with the majority of
members becomes the Majority Party and chooses the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
If no party has a majority, parties negotiate divisions of power and form
coalitions. Once a coalition is established, the government is formed.
Coalitions are often fragile, as the majority voice in the coalition can offend
the minority (or minorities) and cause members of the coalition to abandon the
coalition. Parliamentary legislatures remain in power for a fixed term or until
a vote of no confidence is taken and the majority loses the vote.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
another type of parliamentary setup, there are no political divisions —
national elections are held and people vote for a single party. When the votes
are counted, seats in the parliament are given on a percentage basis to each
party. The party then decides who to appoint to each seat it is apportioned. In
this type of system, minority voices are more likely to be heard and coalition
governments more likely to be formed (in a districted system, is it possible
for one party to win 50-percent-plus-one of all districts and acquire 100
percent of the seats in parliament; in a national election system, this cannot
happen).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
a system like that of the United States, members of the legislature hold their
office for a certain fixed term. After elections, a majority party is
determined, but there is no such thing as a vote of no confidence. Though
parties play a major role in the selection of legislative leaders, individual
members of the legislature are free to vote however they wish without fear of
bringing down the government as in a parliamentary system.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Another
common system involves a legislature composed of one party. Such systems are
common in communist nations, so examples include the USSR's Supreme Soviet and
China's National People's Congress. Though dissent is generally allowed in such
a system, the decisions of the party are rubber-stamped by the legislature.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Legislatures
can have one house (unicameral) or two houses (bicameral). A 1973 survey found
that nations with a legislature were nearly evenly divided between unicameral
and bicameral. The role of the two houses vary from one nation to another. In
the United States, the two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate,
have roughly equal powers, and legislation passed by one house must be passed
by the other to become law (in many systems, the executive must also approve of
any legislation passed by the legislature). In Britain, the House of Commons is
an elected body with the majority of the power; the House of Lords can amend
and delay bills passed by the House of Commons, but may not cancel them. The
House of Lords has no power over taxation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Judicial Branch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Generally,
the judicial branch interprets the laws of the nation. Because of the nature of
law enforcement, the judicial branch often has the largest membership. In the
United States, for example, there is one executive (two, if the Vice President
is counted), 535 legislators, and thousands of federal judges.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
structure of the judiciary varies greatly from one nation to another, based on
the legal tradition. The most familiar may be that of the United States, where
there is a Supreme Court that is the final court of appeals in the nation.
Below the Supreme Court are a series of inferior courts, starting with the
federal court where most cases are heard, and several levels of appeals courts.
Britain has a similar setup, but the House of Lords is the court of final
appeal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Israel
has several judicial systems — the secular system is divided into general law
courts and tribunals. The general court has a Supreme Court, district courts,
and magistrates. Personal matters, such as marriage and divorce disputes, are
handled by religious courts. There are four systems of religious court; Jewish,
Christian, Muslim, and Druze.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Selection
of judges is another point of comparison. Generally, the selection process is
divided between appointed and elected. Appointed judges are thought to be free
from political pressure, and thus are able to best represent the people and the
law. Elected judges are thought to best represent the will of the people. Terms
vary from life to several years, in both systems of selection.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Other
judicial concepts vary from nation to nation. For example, in the United
States, each state maintains its own judicial system separate, but related to,
the national judiciary. Concepts of "innocent until proven guilty" or
"guilty until proven innocent" vary, and does the concept of the jury
trial. These concepts are highly tied to the legal tradition of each nation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Military</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Almost
every society in known history has or has had a military structure. It is a
constant in human history that societies will fight over resources, and to
fight effectively requires a trained class of persons — soldiers.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
some nations, the military is a dictatorship, and the head of government is a
military officer. This is in contrast to other dictatorships where the military
is completely subservient to the ruler. In Hitler's Germany, for example, the
military was a strong tool of the Nazi Party, but Germany was not run by the
military. The same can be said for the United States which, since World War II
has maintained a very strong military, but where the military has no actual
power in the government. In the case of the United States, the military is an
institution of the Executive, and not a separate branch of government. A lack
of power does not mean a lack of influence, though. In the United States,
politicians vie for military spending in their districts, and the prosecution
of war can lead to serious changes in the economy and in public opinion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ancient
Sparta is a good example of a nation where the military was a distinct branch
of government — in fact, Aristotle said that Sparta was an unending
generalship. The militaristic nature of Sparta is generally overstated, though,
as there were some democratic institutions in place. However, most citizens
were expected to be soldiers — only those too weak to soldier were permitted to
be civilians.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Military
dictatorships are not uncommon even today. Some world leaders came to power as
the result of military coups. The leader may be a single person, such as
Libya's Colonel Moammar Al Qadhafi and Pakistan's General Pervez Musharaf, or a
junta, a committee, as in Myanmar (Burma). Other historical examples include
Argentina in the late 1970's and early 1980's, or Uganda under General Idi
Amin.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Church</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
some nations, the church has no role in government, as in the United States.
However, in other states, even those that are not theocracies, the church has a
great deal of influence. Note that it must be distinguished between a formal
national church and personal religious beliefs. While the United States has no
national church, individual leaders often look to their religious faith for
strength of answers. This is in contrast, however, to those nations where the
national church has a voice in the conduct of government. Such church
involvement in government is also known as clericalism.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
most obvious place where church has a role in government is in the theocracy,
most often seen today in the Islamic state. In such a state, the leaders are
often religious clerics. Legal systems might adhere to Shariah, or Islamic law
as presented in the Koran. In Iran under the Ayatollah Khomeini, the
head-of-state was a cleric with broad powers; since his death, however,
executive power is held by the President, elected by the people. The
legislature, the Majlis, is elected by universal suffrage, but all legislative
actions must be approved by a Council of Guardians composed of clergy and
jurists. The Council judges the suitability of each presidential candidate and
of every candidate for seats in the Majlis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
Israel, Judaism is not the official religion, but its influence is seen
throughout its political structure. An example already given involves the
provision of different religious court systems. Judaic principles can be seen
in various places, such as the recognition of the Sabbath and the use of kosher
cooking in state kitchens. However, divisions within Judaism, between the
majority and the minority ultra orthodox and modern orthodox sects, have raised
issues of late as to where religion and government should come together and
where they should separate.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
Britain, the Church of England has a role in government in several key ways.
The head-of-state is also the Supreme Governor of the Church, and appoints
archbishops, bishops, and deans on the advice of the Prime Minister. In
addition, 26 members of the House of Lords are the archbishops and bishops of
the Church.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3231543326627374196" name="misc"></a> There are a few other notable differences between
political systems that should be mentioned, and which can be used to
characterize a nation's government.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">First
is in the distribution of power. As nations grow larger, it is often desirable
to divide the nation into smaller units, such as provinces, as in Canada, or
states as in the United States or Brazil. With smaller nations, division is not
always necessary. With this division comes three typical systems for dividing
power. The first is the unitary system, where there is no actual division of
power. Unitary systems include Britain, France, and, oddly for its size, China.
The unitary system is by far the most common in the modern world. It is simple,
with only one level of government to contend with.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Many
larger nations, however, have adopted a <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_fedr.html">federal system</a>,
where the nation has certain powers, but smaller political divisions enjoy a
certain degree of autonomy and sovereignty. The United States is the classic
example, but Canada, Australia, Russia, and Brazil all also have federal
systems. Other nations not quite so large, such as Nigeria, Switzerland, India,
and Mexico, opted for federal systems to ease tensions in various ethnic,
linguistic, or regional groups within the nation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
last type of distribution is the confederation. There are no surviving
confederations today. In a confederation, the national government is very weak
compared to those of the internal political divisions. The United States under
the <a href="http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html">Articles of
Confederation</a> is one example. Germany in the early 1800's, and Switzerland
through most of the 1800's also used confederal systems. Many consider the
European Community (EC) to be a confederal system, and over time, as more power
is assumed by the EC, it may evolve into a true confederacy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
REFERENCES</div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Almond, Gabriel A., et al. <i>Comparative Politics
Today: A World View</i> (Seventh Edition). 2000. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0316034975">ISBN
0-316-03497-5</a></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">June 25, 2011.</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ferris, Kerry, and Jill Stein. The Real World An
Introduction to Sociology. 3rd ed. New York City: W W Norton & Co,
2012. Print.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"political system". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 02 Dec. 2012 <<a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36699/Confederations-and-federations">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36699/Confederations-and-federations</a>>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
bookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-47943383729397332942012-08-23T01:15:00.000-07:002012-08-23T01:15:08.247-07:00Effects_implication of unsustainable exploitation of environmental resources<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">By Jeff Mathers</span></b></div>
<h1 style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">INTRODUCTION</span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The <b>exploitation of environmental resources</b> started
to emerge in the 19th century as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">environmental resource</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> extraction developed. During the
20th century, energy consumption rapidly increased. Today, about 80% of the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_consumption" title="World energy consumption"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">world’s energy consumption</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is sustained by the extraction of
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">fossil fuels</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, which consists of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil" title="Oil"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oil</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" title="Coal"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">coal</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">gas</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_note-0"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[1]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Another </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">non-renewable resource</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> that is exploited by humans are </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizon#Layers" title="Soil horizon"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Subsoil minerals</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> such as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">precious metals</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> that are mainly used in the
production of industrial </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">commodities</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Intensive agriculture</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is an example of a mode of
production that hinders many aspects of the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">environmental environment</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, for example the degradation of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest" title="Forest"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">forests</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> in a </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">terrestrial ecosystem</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">water pollution</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> in an </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">aquatic ecosystem</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. As the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population" title="World population"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">world population</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> rises and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">economic growth</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> occurs, the depletion of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">environmental
resources</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
influenced by the unsustainable extraction of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_materials" title="Raw materials"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">raw materials</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> becomes an increasing concern.</span></div>
<b>Environmental resources</b> occur environmentally within <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environments</a> that exist relatively
undisturbed by mankind, in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">environmental</a> form. A environmental <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">resource</a> is
often characterized by amounts of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodiversity" title="Geodiversity">geodiversity</a>
existent in various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystems" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>.<br />
Environmental resources are derived from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>. Some of them are essential for
our survival while most are used for satisfying our wants. Environmental
resources may be further classified in different ways.<br />
Environmental resources are materials and components (something that can
be used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is
composed of environmental resources (at its fundamental level). A environmental
resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, and air, as well
as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form
which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, oil, and
most forms of energy.<br />
There is much debate worldwide over environmental resource allocations,
this is partly due to increasing scarcity (depletion of resources) but also
because the exportation of environmental resources is the basis for many
economies (particularly for developed nations such as Australia).<br />
Some Environmental resources can be found everywhere such as sunlight and
air, when this is so the resource is known as an ubiquitous (existing or
being everywhere) resource. However most resources are not ubiquitous. They
only occur in small sporadic areas; these resources are referred to as
localized resources. There are very few resources that are considered
inexhaustible (will not run out in foreseeable future) – these are solar
radiation, geothermal energy, and air (though access to clean air may not
be). The vast majority of resources are however exhaustible, which means they
have a finite quantity, and can be depleted if managed improperly. The environmental
resources are materials, which living organisms can take from nature for
sustaining their life or any components of the environmental environment that
can be utilized by man to promote his welfare is considered as environmental
resources.<br />
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<h1 style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Why
resources are under pressure</span></h1>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Increase in the sophistication
of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology" title="Technology"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">technology</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> enabling environmental
resources to be extracted quickly and efficiently. E.g., in the past, it
could take long hours just to cut down one tree only using saws. Due to
increased technology, rates of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation#Rates" title="Deforestation"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">deforestation</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> have greatly increased</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A rapid </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">increase in
population</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.
This leads to greater demand for environmental resources.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cultures of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">consumerism</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Materialistic views lead to
the mining of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold" title="Gold"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">gold</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">diamonds</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> to produce jewelry,
unnecessary commodities for human life or advancement.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Excessive demand often leads to
conflicts due to intense </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition" title="Competition"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">competition</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Organizations such as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Witness" title="Global Witness"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Global Witness</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">United Nations</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> have documented the
connection.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Non-equitable distribution of
resources.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">NAMED ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES</span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are various methods of
categorizing environmental resources, these include source of origin, stage of
development, and by their renewability, these classifications are described
below. On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>
(living and organic material), such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forests" title="Forests">forests</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animals" title="Animals">animals</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds" title="Birds">birds</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and the
materials that can be obtained from them. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels" title="Fossil fuels">Fossil
fuels</a> such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>
are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed
organic matter.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from
non-living, non-organic material. Examples of abiotic resources include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" title="Land">land</a>, fresh <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" title="Air">air</a> and heavy metals
including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ores" title="Ores">ores</a>
such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, etc.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Considering their stage of
development, environmental resources may be referred to in the following ways:</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Potential Resources</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
– Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in
the future. For example, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> may exist in many parts of India, having
sedimentary rocks but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into
use, it remains a potential resource.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Actual Resources</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
– Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and
quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of
an actual resource, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_processing" title="Wood processing">wood
processing</a> depends upon the technology available and the cost
involved.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reserve Resources</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
– The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the
future is called a reserve resource.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stock Resources</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
– Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used by
organisms due to lack of technology. For example: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Renewability is a very popular topic
and many environmental resources can be categorized as either renewable or
non-renewable:</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_resources" title="Renewable resources">Renewable resources</a> are ones that can be
replenished environmentally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air,
wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not
noticeably affected by human consumption. Though many renewable resources
do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to
depletion by over-use. Resources from a human use perspective are
classified as renewable only so long as the rate of replenishment/recovery
exceeds that of the rate of consumption.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable_resources" title="Non-renewable resources">Non-renewable resources</a> are resources
that form extremely slowly and those that do not environmentally form in
the environment. Minerals are the most common resource included in this
category. By the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their
rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good
example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their
rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years),
meaning they are considered non-renewable. Some resources actually environmentally
deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these
being radio-active elements such as uranium, which environmentally decay
into heavy metals. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by
recycling them,<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource#cite_note-0">[1]</a></sup>
but coal and petroleum cannot be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycled" title="Recycled">recycled</a>.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">WATER</span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<b>Water</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substance</a> with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">chemical
formula</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a><span class="chemf"><sub>2</sub></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a>. A water <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> contains one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and two <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms" title="Atoms">atoms</a> connected by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent" title="Covalent">covalent</a> bonds.
Water is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>
at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard conditions for temperature and pressure">ambient conditions</a>,
but it often co-exists on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> with its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> state, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaseous" title="Gaseous">gaseous</a> state (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a>
or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>). Water
also exists in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">liquid crystal</a> state near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophile" title="Hydrophile">hydrophilic</a>
surfaces.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-1"><sup>[2]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
Water covers 70.9% of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s surface,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-2"><sup>[3]</sup></a> and is
vital for all known forms of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life#Range_of_tolerance" title="Life">life</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-3"><sup>[4]</sup></a> On
Earth, 96.5% of the planet's water is found in oceans, 1.7% in groundwater,
1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction
in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">air</a> as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> (formed of
solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-b1-4"><sup>[5]</sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-5"><sup>[6]</sup></a> Only
2.5% of the Earth's water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice and
groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the
atmosphere, and an even smaller amount of the Earth's freshwater (0.003%) is
contained within biological bodies and manufactured products.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-b1-4"><sup>[5]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
Water on Earth moves continually through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrological_cycle" title="Hydrological cycle">hydrological cycle</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>
(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runoff_%28water%29" title="Runoff (water)">runoff</a>,
usually reaching the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">sea</a>.
Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
Safe <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking
water</a> is essential to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humans" title="Humans">humans</a> and other lifeforms. Access to safe drinking water has
improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world, but
approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion
lack access to adequate sanitation.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-UN-6"><sup>[7]</sup></a>
There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> per capita.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-7"><sup>[8]</sup></a>
However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population" title="World population">world
population</a> will be facing water-based vulnerability.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-8"><sup>[9]</sup></a> A
recent report (November 2009) suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions
of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-9"><sup>[10]</sup></a> Water
plays an important role in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world
economy</a>, as it functions as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a> for a wide variety of chemical substances and
facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a>
used by humans goes to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water#cite_note-Baroni2007-10"><sup>[11]</sup></a></div>
<h1 style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Problems arising from the
exploitation of environmental resources</span></h1>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Deforestation</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<b>Deforestation</b> is the removal of a forest or
stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation#cite_note-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches,
or urban use.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
About half of the world's original forests had
disappeared by 2011, the majority during the last 50 years. Since 1990 half of
the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_forest" title="Rain forest">rain
forests</a> have disappeared. More than a half of the animal and plant species
live in the tropical forests.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
The term <i>deforestation</i> is often misused to
describe any activity where all trees in an area are removed.<sup>[</sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><i><sup>not in citation given</sup></i></a><sup>][</sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view"><i><sup>neutrality</sup></i></a><i><sup>
is </sup></i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Deforestation" title="Talk:Deforestation"><i><sup>disputed</sup></i></a><sup>]</sup> However
in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate climates</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">removal of
all trees in an area</a><sup>[</sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><i><sup>not in citation given</sup></i></a><sup>]</sup>—in
conformance with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_forestry" title="Sustainable forestry">sustainable forestry</a> practices—is correctly
described as <i>regeneration harvest</i>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation#cite_note-1"><sup>[2]</sup></a>
In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temperate_mesic_climate&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Temperate mesic climate (page does not exist)">temperate mesic climates</a>,
environmental regeneration of forest stands often will not occur in the absence
of disturbance, whether environmental or anthropogenic.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation#cite_note-2"><sup>[3]</sup></a>
Furthermore, biodiversity after regeneration harvest often mimics that found
after environmental disturbance, including biodiversity loss after environmentally
occurring rainforest destruction.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation#cite_note-SahneyBentonFalconLang_2010RainforestCollapse-3"><sup>[4]</sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation#cite_note-4"><sup>[5]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees are
cut down to be used or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>) or
timber, while cleared land is used as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> for
livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements. The removal of trees
without sufficient <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> has resulted in damage to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>
loss and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arid" title="Arid">aridity</a>. It
has adverse impacts on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosequestration" title="Biosequestration">biosequestration</a> of atmospheric <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon
dioxide</a>. Deforestation has also been used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War" title="War">war</a> to deprive an enemy
of cover for its forces and also vital resources. A modern example of this was
the use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a> by the United States military in Vietnam
during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. Deforested regions typically incur
significant adverse <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> and frequently degrade into <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wasteland" title="wikt:wasteland">wasteland</a>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value, lack of
ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some
of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many
countries, deforestation, both environmentally occurring and human induced, is
an ongoing issue. Deforestation causes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>,
changes to climatic conditions, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>,
and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the
past through the fossil record.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation#cite_note-SahneyBentonFalconLang_2010RainforestCollapse-3"><sup>[4]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
Among countries with a per capita <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> of at least US$4,600, net deforestation
rates have ceased to increase</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Desertification</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Desertification</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">degradation of land</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> in any </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drylands" title="Drylands"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">dryland</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification#cite_note-Geist-2005-p2-1"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[2]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> It is caused by a variety of
factors, such as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">climate change</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and human activities.
Desertification is a significant global ecological and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_problems" title="Environmental problems"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">environmental problem</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification#cite_note-Geist-2005-p4-2"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[3]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Considerable
controversy exists over the proper definition of the term
"desertification" for which Helmut Geist (2005) has identified more
than 100 formal definitions.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification#cite_note-Geist-2005-p2-1"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[2]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> The most widely accepted</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification#cite_note-Geist-2005-p2-1"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[2]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> of these is that of the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Princeton University</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Dictionary which defines it as
"the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a
result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture"</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification#cite_note-3"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[4]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonization" title="French colonization"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">French colonization</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">West Africa</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on <i>desséchement
progressif</i> to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification#cite_note-4"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Extinction of
species</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
The <b>Holocene extinction</b> refers to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction</a>
of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>
during the present <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoch_%28geology%29" title="Epoch (geology)">epoch</a>
(since around 10,000 BC). The large number of extinctions span numerous
families of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>
including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>.
Although 875 extinctions occurring between 1500 and 2009 have been documented
by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature_and_Natural_Resources" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources">International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Environmental Resources</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction#cite_note-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a>,
the vast majority are undocumented. According to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species-area_curve" title="Species-area curve">species-area theory</a> and based on upper-bound
estimating, up to 140,000 species per year may be the present rate of
extinction.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction#cite_note-1"><sup>[2]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance
of large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>
known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna">megafauna</a>,
starting between 9,000 and 13,000 years ago, the end of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Ice_Age" title="Last Ice Age">last Ice
Age</a>. Such disappearances are considered to be results of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate
change</a> or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">proliferation</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_human" title="Modern human">modern
humans</a>, or both. These extinctions, occurring near the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>–Holocene
boundary, are sometimes referred to as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary extinction event</a> or Ice Age
extinction. The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
There is no general agreement on whether to
consider more recent extinctions as a distinct event, merely part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary extinction event</a>, or just a
result of environmental evolution on a non-geologic scale of time. Only during
these most recent parts of the extinction have <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> also suffered
large losses. Overall, the Holocene extinction can be characterized by climate
change and humanity's presence.</div>
<ol start="4" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_migration" title="Forced migration"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Forced
migration</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Forced
migration</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (also
called <b>deracination</b> - originally a French word meaning uprooting) refers
to the coerced movement of a person or persons away from their </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home" title="Home"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">home</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> or home </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region" title="Region"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">region</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. It often connotes violent
coercion, and is used interchangeably with the terms "displacement"
or <b>forced displacement</b>. According to Speare, "In the strictest
sense migration can be considered to be involuntary only when a person is
physically transported from a country and has no opportunity to escape from
those transporting him. Movement under threat, even the immediate threat to life,
contains a voluntary element, as long as there is an option to escape to
another part of the country, go into hiding or to remain and hope to avoid
persecution." However this thought has been questioned, especially by
Marxians, who argue that in most cases migrants have little or no choice.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_migration#cite_note-0"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[1]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> A specific form of forced migration
is </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">population transfer</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, which is a coherent policy to move
unwanted persons, perhaps as an attempt at "</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ethnic cleansing</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">". Someone who has experienced
forced migration is a "forced migrant" or "</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displaced_person" title="Displaced person"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">displaced person</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">". Less formally, such a person
may be referred to as a </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">refugee</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, although that term has a specific
narrower legal definition.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration" title="International Organization for Migration"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">International Organization for Migration</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> defines forced migration as any
person who migrates to "escape persecution, conflict, repression, environmental
and human-made disasters, ecological degradation, or other situations that
endanger their lives, freedom or livelihood.”</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_migration#cite_note-1"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[2]</span></sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_migration#cite_note-2"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[3]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Forced
migration has accompanied persecution, as well as war, throughout human history
but has only become a topic of serious study and discussion relatively recently.
This increased attention is the result of greater ease of travel, allowing </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displaced_person" title="Displaced person"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">displaced persons</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> to flee to nations far removed from
their homes, the creation of an international legal structure of human rights,
and the realizations that the destabilizing effects of forced migration,
especially in parts of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" title="Africa"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Africa</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Middle East</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, south and central </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia" title="Asia"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Asia</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, ripple out well beyond the
immediate region.<sup>[</sup></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><i><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">original research?</span></sup></i></a></span><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">]</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development-induced_displacement" title="Development-induced displacement"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Development-induced displacement</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is a subset of forced migration.
Such displacement is the forcing of communities and individuals out of their
homes, often also their homelands, for the purposes of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">economic development</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. It has been historically
associated with the construction of dams for </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" title="Hydroelectric power"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydroelectric power</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">irrigation</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> purposes but also appears due to
many other activities, such as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining" title="Mining"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mining</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. The most well-known examples of
development-induced displacement is a result of the construction of the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Three Gorges Dam</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> in </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">China</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, and also the previous </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_expulsions" title="German expulsions"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">German expulsions</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span></div>
<ol start="5" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Soil erosion</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<b>Erosion</b> is the process by which soil and
rock are removed from the Earth's surface by environmental processes such as
wind or water flow, and then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">transported</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_%28geology%29" title="Deposition (geology)">deposited</a> in other locations.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
While erosion is a environmental process, human
activities have dramatically increased (by 10-40 times) the rate at which
erosion is occurring globally. Excessive erosion causes problems such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>,
decreases in agricultural productivity due to land degradation, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sedimentation</a>
of waterways, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_collapse" title="Ecological collapse">ecological collapse</a> due to loss of the nutrient
rich upper <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">soil layers</a>. Water and wind erosion are now the two
primary causes of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a>; combined, they are responsible
for 84% of degraded acreage, making excessive erosion one of the most
significant global environmental problems we face today.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion#cite_note-Springer-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion#cite_note-toy-2002-p1-1"><sup>[2]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_agriculture" title="Industrial agriculture">Industrial agriculture</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roads" title="Roads">roads</a>,
anthropogenic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a>
are amongst the most significant human activities in regards to their effect on
stimulating erosion.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion#cite_note-2"><sup>[3]</sup></a>
However, there are many available alternative land use practices that can curtail
or limit erosion—such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_%28agriculture%29" title="Terrace (agriculture)">terrace</a>-building, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-till" title="No-till">no-till</a>
agriculture, and revegetation of denuded soils.</div>
<ol start="6" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion" title="Oil depletion"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Oil depletion</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<b>Oil depletion</b> occurs in the second half of
the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_curve" title="Hubbert curve">production
curve</a> of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">oil
well</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_field" title="Oil field">oil
field</a>, or the average of total world <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a>
production. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_peak_theory" title="Hubbert peak theory">Hubbert peak theory</a> makes predictions of
production rates based on prior discovery rates and anticipated production
rates. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_curve" title="Hubbert curve">Hubbert curves</a> predict that the production curves of
non-renewing resources approximate a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">bell curve</a>. Thus, when the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak of
production</a> is passed, production rates enter an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">exponential
decline</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion#cite_note-mkinghubbert1956-2"><sup>[3]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
The American Petroleum Institute estimated in 1999
the world's oil supply would be depleted between 2062 and 2094, assuming total
world oil reserves at between 1.4 and 2 trillion barrels (220 and 320 km<sup>3</sup>)
and consumption at 80 million barrels per day (13,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>/d). In
2004, total world reserves were estimated to be 1.25 trillion barrels
(199 km<sup>3</sup>) and daily consumption was about 85 million barrels
(13,500,000 m<sup>3</sup>), shifting the estimated oil depletion year to 2057.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion#cite_note-national_geographic-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
A study published in the journal Energy Policy by researchers from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University" title="Oxford University">Oxford
University</a>, however, predicted demand would surpass supply by 2015 (unless
constrained by strong recession pressures caused by reduced supply or
government intervention).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion#cite_note-owen032010-3"><sup>[4]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
The United States <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration" title="Energy Information Administration">Energy Information Administration</a>
predicted in 2006 that world consumption of oil will increase to 98.3 million
barrels per day (15,630,000 m<sup>3</sup>/d) (mbd) in 2015 and 118 mbd in 2030.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion#cite_note-4"><sup>[5]</sup></a>
With 2009 world oil consumption at 84.4 mbd,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion#cite_note-tonto.eia.doe.gov-5"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
reaching the projected 2015 level of consumption would represent an average
annual increase between 2009 and 2015 of 2.7% per year while EIA's own figures
show declining consumption<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion#cite_note-tonto.eia.doe.gov-5"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
and declining supplies<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletion#cite_note-6"><sup>[7]</sup></a>
during the 2005–2009 period.</div>
<ol start="7" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ozone depletion</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<b>Ozone depletion</b> describes two distinct but
related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about 4%
per decade in the total volume of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> (the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a>),
and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar
regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the <b>ozone hole</b>. In
addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime
polar <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone_depletion_events" title="Tropospheric ozone depletion events">tropospheric ozone depletion events</a>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
The details of polar ozone hole formation differ
from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic" title="Catalytic">catalytic</a>
destruction of ozone by atomic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodissociation" title="Photodissociation">photodissociation</a>
of man-made <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halocarbon" title="Halocarbon">halocarbon</a>
refrigerants (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">CFCs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">freons</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkanes" title="Haloalkanes">halons</a>). These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-1"><sup>[2]</sup></a>
Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of
halo-carbons increased.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
CFCs and other contributory substances are referred
to as <b>ozone-depleting substances</b> (<b>ODS</b>). Since the ozone layer
prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>
light (UV light) from passing through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, observed and projected
decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Protocol" title="Montreal Protocol">Montreal
Protocol</a> that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other
ozone-depleting chemicals such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">carbon tetrachloride</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethane" title="1,1,1-Trichloroethane">trichloroethane</a>. It is suspected that a
variety of biological consequences such as increases in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataracts" title="Cataracts">cataracts</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-Dobson2005-2"><sup>[3]</sup></a>
damage to plants, and reduction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>
populations in the ocean's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a> may result from the increased UV exposure
due to ozone depletion.</div>
<ol start="8" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Greenhouse gas increase</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
A <b>greenhouse gas</b> (sometimes abbreviated <b>GHG</b>)
is a gas in an atmosphere that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_%28electromagnetic_radiation%29" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">absorbs</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_%28electromagnetic_radiation%29" title="Emission (electromagnetic radiation)">emits</a> radiation within the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_infrared" title="Thermal infrared">thermal
infrared</a> range. This process is the fundamental cause of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse
effect</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-IPCC_AR4-SYR-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
The primary greenhouse gases in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vapour" title="Water vapour">water
vapour</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous
oxide</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>.
In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar
System</a>, the atmospheres of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Venus" title="Atmosphere of Venus">Venus</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_mars" title="Atmosphere of mars">Mars</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%27s_atmosphere" title="Titan's atmosphere">Titan</a> also contain gases that cause greenhouse
effects. Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>; without them,
Earth's surface would average about 33 °C (59 °F)<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-1"><sup>[note 1]</sup></a>
colder than at present.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-2"><sup>[2]</sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-3"><sup>[3]</sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-h2o-4"><sup>[4]</sup></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
However, since the beginning of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, the burning of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels" title="Fossil fuels">fossil
fuels</a> has contributed to the increase in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide in the atmosphere</a>
from 280 ppm to 397 ppm, despite the uptake of a large portion of the
emissions through various environmental "sinks" involved in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon
cycle</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-cdiac-5"><sup>[5]</sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions (i.e., emissions
produced by human activities) come from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a>
of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_based_fuel" title="Carbon based fuel">carbon based fuels</a>, principally <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">environmental
gas</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#cite_note-7"><sup>[7]</sup></a></div>
<ol start="9" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_energy" title="Extreme energy"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Extreme energy</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<b>Michael T. Klare</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Colleges_%28Massachusetts%29" title="Five Colleges (Massachusetts)">Five Colleges</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professor</a> of
Peace and World Security Studies, whose department is located at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire_College" title="Hampshire College">Hampshire
College</a>, defense correspondent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation"><i>The Nation</i></a>
magazine, and author of <i>Resource Wars</i> and <i>Blood and Oil: The Dangers
and Consequences of America's Growing Petroleum Dependency</i> (Metropolitan).
Klare also teaches at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherst_College" title="Amherst College">Amherst College</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_College" title="Smith College">Smith
College</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Holyoke_College" title="Mount Holyoke College">Mount Holyoke College</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst" title="University of Massachusetts Amherst">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
Klare also serves on the boards of directors of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_Control_Association" title="Arms Control Association">Arms Control Association</a>. He is a regular contributor
to many publications including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation"><i>The Nation</i></a>, <i>TomDispatch</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Jones_%28magazine%29" title="Mother Jones (magazine)"><i>Mother Jones</i></a>, and is a frequent
columnist for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Policy_In_Focus" title="Foreign Policy In Focus">Foreign Policy In Focus</a>. He also was the
narrator of the movie, <i>Blood and Oil</i> which was produced by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Education_Foundation" title="Media Education Foundation">Media Education Foundation</a>.</div>
<ol start="10" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Water pollution</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Water
pollution</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the
contamination of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">water</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> bodies (e.g. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake" title="Lake"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">lakes</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River" title="River"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">rivers</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oceans</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">aquifers</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">groundwater</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">). Water pollution occurs when </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pollutants</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> are discharged directly or
indirectly into water bodies without adequate </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment" title="Water treatment"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">treatment</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> to remove harmful compounds.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Water
pollution affects plants and organisms living in these </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_of_water" title="Bodies of water"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">bodies of water</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. In almost all cases the effect is
damaging not only to individual </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">species</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and populations, but also to the environmental
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biological
communities</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Water
pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and
revision of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">water resource policy</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> at all levels (international down
to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that it is the leading
worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-death-0"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[1]</span></sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-death2-1"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[2]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and that it accounts for the deaths
of more than 14,000 people daily.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-death2-1"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[2]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> An estimated 700 million </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Indians</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> have no access to a proper toilet,
and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-creaking-2"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[3]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Some 90% of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="People's Republic of China"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">China</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">'s cities suffer from </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution_in_China" title="Water pollution in China"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">some degree of water pollution</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">,</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-3"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[4]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and nearly 500 million people lack
access to safe drinking water.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-4"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[5]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> In addition to the acute problems
of water pollution in </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">developing countries</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_countries" title="Developed countries"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">developed countries</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> continue to struggle with pollution
problems as well. In the most recent national report on </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">water quality</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> in the United States, 45 percent of
assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of
assessed </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bays" title="Bays"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">bays</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">estuarine</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> square miles were classified as
polluted.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-5"><sup><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[6]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Water is
typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">anthropogenic</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> contaminants and either does not
support a human use, such as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">drinking water</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, and/or undergoes a marked shift in
its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Environmental
phenomena such as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">volcanoes</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_bloom" title="Algae bloom"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">algae blooms</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water
quality and the ecological status of water.</span></div>
<ol start="11" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_hazard" title="Natural hazard"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Environmental hazard</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/</span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Environmental
disaster</span></b></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A <b>environmental
hazard</b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_hazard#cite_note-0"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
is a threat of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">environmentally</a>
occurring event that will have a negative effect on people or the environment.
Many environmental hazards are interrelated, e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>
can cause <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>
can lead directly to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> or population displacement. It is possible that some environmental
hazards are intertermporally correlated, as well.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_hazard#cite_note-1"><sup>[2]</sup></a>
A concrete example of the division between a environmental <i>hazard</i> and a environmental
<i>disaster</i> is that the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake" title="1906 San Francisco earthquake">1906 San Francisco earthquake</a> was a
disaster, whereas earthquakes are a hazard.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<h1 style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">References</span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_ref-0"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">^</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Planas, Florent. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://www.unanpourlaplanete.org/en/the-human-footprint/the-exploitation-of-natural-resources.html"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">"The
Exploitation of Environmental Resources"</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. <i>Un An Pour La Planete</i>.
Retrieved 22 March 2012.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_ref-1"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">^</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> McNicoll, Geoffrey (2007). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/wp/205.pdf"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">"Population and Sustainability"</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. <i>Handbook of Sustainable
Development</i>. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 125-139. Retrieved
2012-03-13.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_ref-2"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">^</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Pedro, Antonio M.A. (2004). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:idZaZbstr5MJ:www.uneca.org/eca_programmes/sdd/documents/mainstreaming_mineral_wealth_policy_paper_final_ct.pdf+mining+and+poverty+reduction+conflicts&hl=en&gl=ca&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjYQGHBBS22C9mvPPgpT4rou72rG_DS-vg_Eg3Nh9nEoxk0WY7R8SZeIN_mwZ3a4J-nARWjv3jJRmlLl-xF1w_muKytHW8bg9xVfmsJc5-zpuH38VBe46W0YBMyHxgJZP1-JlHs&sig=AHIEtbSRua3GxxxFCBDpDO1vQvsYwsg1Yw"><i><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Mainstreaming
Mineral Wealth in Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategies</span></i></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Economic Commission for Africa.
pp. 5-6. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ISBN</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9211250978_9789211250978" title="Special:BookSources/9211250978 9789211250978"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">9211250978 9789211250978</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Retrieved 20 March 2012.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_ref-3"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">^</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Pegg, Simon (2006). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://www.rosiamontana.ro/img_upload/472936e3bca2bc61045730fbb1869240/Mining_and_Poverty.pdf"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">"Mining and
poverty reduction: Transforming rhetoric into reality"</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. <i>Journal of Cleaner Production</i>
(Elsevier) <b>14</b> (3-4): 376-387. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ISSN</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0959-6526"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">0959-6526</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Retrieved 20 March 2012.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_ref-4"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">^</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Weber-Fahr, M.; Strongman, J.;
Kunanayagam, R.; McMahon, G.; Sheldon, C. (2001). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:vnNkNoXoBwsJ:www.intussen.info/OldSite/Documenten/Noord/Internationaal/WB/PRSP%2520Sourcebook/20%2520Mining%2520and%2520poverty%2520reduction.pdf+post+mining+projects+repercussion+impact+on+local&hl=en&gl=ca&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShtohjYDEQ0JdmWqo71S2H96MwqkZU3vSgEvOlt-JwMxdYDL6pEH5K_N8EAY0hSGJ5Ztu26NgjUBL0n1hOxX_cPbAOUGD3v5YkL-Z9WJTMhybHIUo2R6PiEBt8nN0wYv90VlcwZ&sig=AHIEtbRFyD6oxarM8QfTnUa2cNihzrIgiQ"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">"Mining and
Poverty Reduction"</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. <i>Noord Internationaal WB PRSP Sourcebook</i>.
pp. 4-6. Retrieved 20 March 2012.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_ref-5"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">^</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Bray, John (2003). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://books.google.ca/books?id=034PFZRJwvIC&pg=PA318&lpg=PA318&dq=ok+tedi+mine+local+violence&source=bl&ots=eSoGL0xuw7&sig=4vNt3jWzyTEToOUJjL0qKaaK8Eg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ha5fT8rvHcfZ0QGH1rW3Bw&sqi=2&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=ok%20tedi%20mine%20local%20violence&f=false"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">"Attracting
Reputable Companies to Risky Environments: Petroleum and Mining Companies"</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. <i>Environmental Resources and
Conflict: Options and Actions</i>. World Bank Publications. pp. 287-347.
Retrieved 2012-03-12.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources#cite_ref-6"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">^</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Brereton, D; Forbes, P. (2004). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/docs/Hunter_Valley.pdf"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">"Monitoring the Impact of Mining
on Local Communities: A Hunter Valley Case Study"</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. CSRM. pp. 12-13.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
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bookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-17568146742291773022012-07-24T08:27:00.002-07:002012-07-28T04:42:41.942-07:00DISCUSS THE PHILOSOPHICAL CONSCINCISM OF KWAME NKURUMA<br />
<b>INTRODUCTION</b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">The
viewpoint of <i>Consciencism</i> is that philosophy arises from and operates
within the context of a given society. This viewpoint asserts that “philosophy
always arose from social milieu and that a social contention is always present
in it”. We are here concerned with the second aspect of the assertion, namely,
the “social contention” of the new philosophy. We should try to see how
philosophical consciencism seeks to affect its social milieu which is Ghana in
particular and Africa in general.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">It
is necessary at the outset to clear up what seems, to the lay mind, a confusion
of terms and isms. Here in Ghana, we have all heard of scientific socialism.
Dr. Kwame Nkrumah himself has stated openly that “Ghana has taken the road of
scientific socialism”. We have also heard of Nkrumaism ; and only recently this
term was defined as the ideology for the new Africa. And now Dr. Nkrumah, in
his new work, gives the world the philosophy of <i>Consciencism</i>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Superficially
this seems to be some confusion. But, on closer examination, there is in fact
no confusion at all.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Ghana
has embraced the ideology of socialism and to Dr. Nkrumah there is only one
socialism, namely scientific socialism. And this is correct. Nkrumaism is the
application of this scientific socialism to the historical conditions and
aspirations of Africa. Consciencism, on its part, is the philosophical or
theoretical basis of Nkrumaism. Consciencism is thus the intellectual tool of
the ideology for the new Africa, very much as mathematics often serves as the
tool of physics or statistics as a tool of economics, or religion as a tool of
ethics. Thus, Consciencism serves Nkrumaism and Nkrumaism is the
particularisation of scientific socialism to emergent Africa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">The
“social contention” of <i>Consciencism</i> in Ghana and in Africa can be said
to be the evolution of a body of principles, which, by guiding the thinking and
actions of all Africans, will establish a common range of behaviour for all.
This range of behaviour becomes the foundation of social cohesion in Ghana and
Africa. It sets out the moral, social and political values to which all the
cultural strands in present-day African society should conform.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Ghanain
society is a microcosm of African society today. In it the three layers of
present-day African society are to be found. These are the strands of
traditional Africa, of Islamic Africa and of Euro Christian Africa.
Consciencism sets out to provide a set of values (a body of coherent
principles) which can provide a rational rallying point for the best in each of
these three components of present-day Africa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">In
this grand effort to provide a rational harmony out of the three Africas,
consciencism has to fight on at least three planes, everywhere applying
uncompromisingly the test of reality. Reality is objective and is discovered
through practical struggle. Active struggle is thus the means and the test of
all knowledge.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Consciencism</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> has to fight in the field of philosophy. It has to fight in
the field of moral and social theory. And it has to fight in the field of
political theory and practice. Put in another way, <i>Consciencism</i> has its
philosophy, its moral and social theory, and arising from these, a political
theory. The practical application of consciencism in Ghana and Africa involves
a sustained struggle in all three categories of thought.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Consciencism’s</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> philosophy is based on the following principles:-</span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">that matter is the source of
all knowledge;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">that matter is a “plenum
of forces in tension”;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">that because it is a plenum of
forces in tension, matter is capable of self induced motion;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">that the motion of matter is
both unilinear and in leaps, that is to say, change in matter is both
quantitative and qualitative;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">that mind has a distinct
existence even though it is a product of matter;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">that there is interaction
between matter and mind but that matter is primary;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">that in this interaction of
matter and mind, assumptions, theories and conclusions are permissible but
that such assumptions, theories and conclusions are valid only when
confirmed in practice.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">This
philosophy is materialist in content. Its approach is rational. Its touch-stone
is practice.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">When
we turn to the practical application of this philosophy the first step is to
clear our individual thinking of the cobwebs of irrationality, half-truths,
unproved assertions and superstitions. We have to subject the ideas floating
about in our individual minds to the test of rationality and above all to the
test of practice. We have to reject all ideas and notions that can neither be
verified nor confirmed by practice.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">As
regards the thinking of the community, <i>Consciencism</i> enjoins that we wage
a relentless war against mysticism, magic and all those views which postulate
the supernatural in an attempt to explain phenomena and events around us. If
there is any phenomenon which we cannot explain, then this must be due to the
fact that our knowledge is still limited. We cannot go by way of claiming that
the phenomenon is supernatural and hence inexplicable in terms of human reason.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Overall, <i>Consciencism</i>
and Nkrumah's ideological system, philosophical consciencism, serve as a basis
for explanation of his increasingly unpopular descisions as a national leader.
Published two years before the coup that forced him into exile and revised two
years before his death, <i>Consciencism</i> seeks to explain Nkrumah's Africa -
a colonial philosopher's experience of postcolonial Africa. It seems that his
actions more often than not reflect the ideology that he has himself derived
from socialism, the philosophical consciencism: the construction of the
Akosombo Dam reflects his fear of neo-colonialism and his military support to
those fighting the South African Smith administration reflects, perhaps, his
pan-Africanist ideals. When he was voted Africa's man of the millennium by
listeners to the BBC World Service in 2000, that probably reflected this
commitment and faith, and it underlines how he remains an influental politician
and thinker to this day.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Such a
philosophical statement I propose to name Philosophical Consciencism, for it
will give the theoretical basis for an ideology whose aim shall be to contain
the African experience of the traditional African Society, and, by gestation,
employ them for the harmonious growth and development of that society.” (p.
70).</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">V. Philosophical
Consciencism is thus a new and creative development of Marxism in African
conditions and experience. Both in belief and in action a Marxist is a
humanist, he lives by human values achieved through human action.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This humanism, as
Kwame Nkrumah expounds in minute detail and with such clarity and lucidity, is
consistent with the traditional African way of life. The respect for human
individuality and human capacity finds its logical basis in the understanding
of society and its transformations given us by Marxism, and today reaffirmed
anew and developed to a higher level for us by philosophical consciencism.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The fundamental
task of philosophy is to discover and generalise the laws of change and
development manifested in nature and society. These most general laws, the laws
of dialectics, provide the theoretical weapon, the method for understanding and
changing society.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">VI. In our own
African experience and environment philosophical consciencism is such a
philosophy. It generalises the laws of change and development in Africa not
only from the discoveries of science and Marxism, but from the whole complex of
the movement of African Society in its entirety.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This means
concretely that philosophical consciencism not only generalises the laws of
change and development in Africa, but provides us with the theoretical and
intellectual means for understanding the forces at work in our society, and
what is more, how to organise and harness those forces (1) for the total
liberation of Africa from imperialism, colonialism and neo-colonialism (2) for
the intensification of the struggle for real and effective African Unity and
(3) for the building of Socialism in Africa.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The problem
therefore of interpreting African Society, has become the problem of how to
change our society with the philosophy and ideology of Philosophical
consciencism as our intellectual guide.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The author of <i>Consciencism</i>,
asserting the philosophical conclusions of dialectical materialism, begins his
book by reprinting a passage from a letter by Engels warning that Marx and he
had never claimed that the economic factor is the <i>only</i> determining
one. “According to the materialistic conception of history, the <i>ultimately</i>
determining element in history is the production and reproduction of real life.
More than this neither Marx nor I have ever asserted. Hence if somebody twists
this into saying that the economic factor is the only determining one, he
transforms that proposition into a meaningless, abstract, senseless phrase …”.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Engels goes on to
suggest that it is the younger people who sometimes lay more stress on the
economic side than is due to it. But the letter was written 1890, and today it
is the “angry young men” who react against the sole occupation with economic
factors in the Marxist parties both within and outside the socialist countries.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">As we read
“Consciencism”, we begin to understand why the author made the Engels letter
the keynote to his book. He is concerned mainly with the humanism in African
society before its involvement with capitalism, and means to prove that it has
withstood and will withstand the determining factors of capitalism. He includes
the Euro-Christian and Islamic influences in Africa among the factors which
brought these changes into African society, and concludes that their
quantitative effects could not bring a qualitative change.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The importance of
these philosophical assertions in the field of politics lies in the further
assertion that where the original communalism still remains fundamentally
humanistic, a transition to socialism can take place through reform and not
necessarily through revolution. A humanist society is one where each man is
considered an end in himself and not a means. No capitalist society can attain
to this as man is first of all a means.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kwame Nkrumah
asserts that in Africa the capitalist system has not taken sufficient hold to
necessitate the kind of revolution which must destroy capitalism on other
continents. Reforms, of course, must be quantitative changes of a revolutionary
kind, or they cannot be regarded as reforms at all.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The basis of these
assertions depends on the philosophical principle which the author calls
“categorial conversion”. This depends on the ability of matter, the <i>basic</i>
raw material of the world, to produce consciousness, which can be explained in
terms of overt response to stimuli, and for this consciousness to produce
self-consciousness, of which we have only an internal experience.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">“By categorial
conversion”, says the author of <i>Consciencism</i>, “I mean such a thing as
the emergence of self-consciousness from that which is not self-conscious; such
a thing as the emergence of mind from matter, of quality from quantity”.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The author insists
that it is the task of philosophy only to prove the possibility of this
conversion, and that tracing the details of conversion is one of the tasks of
science.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In the political
field, the main interest lies in the categorial conversion of quantity to
quality; whether the quantity of change in human environment can produce a
qualitative change in human society. If it cannot do so then no amount of
revolutionary change will abolish the exploitation of man by man, of man’s
inhumanity to man, of man’s continual flight from reality to the realms of
superstition. If it can do so, then no amount of sacrifice is too great to
achieve socialism – to change the environment created by slavery, feudalism and
capitalism in the past, which has brought wars, imperialism, racial intolerance
and religious superstition.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In the political
field in Africa, the conception of categorial conversion raises additional
problems. We know for certain that in most areas of the world, the original
communalism of early human societies has undergone qualitative changes. Nothing
short of further qualitative changes can eradicate capitalism, (internal
exploitation), and imperialism, (external exploitation), from the societies
which have undergone a categorial change from communalism. The basic humanism
of these societies has disappeared, and can only appear again, (in a higher
form, if at all), through revolution.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Is it true of
Africa? The author of Consciencism says no. He asserts that the basic humanism
of African society has not disappeared, and will therefore embrace socialism
willingly and not necessarily through compulsion.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">It follows that
the dictatorship of the proletariat, (Marx’s means of compelling a capitalist
system to change over to socialism), will not be a necessary condition for
revolution in a society which is basically humanistic. It also follows,
however, that without the comparatively simple device of proletarian
dictatorship, the tasks of eradicating and suppressing capitalist
manifestations in Africa will be more complicated and may take longer.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The one-party
state is close enough to proletarian dictatorship to make superficial analogies
possible. Yet the tendency to twist the materialist conception of history into
an acceptance of the economic element as the <i>only</i> determining one,
still remains the main characteristic of Western revolutionary socialism,
whilst the main characteristic of socialism in Africa may become a tendency to
under-rate the economic factor.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">CONSCIENCISM puts
the economic factor into its correct place, as the primary but not the only
determining factor of human society. That is the great contribution of this
book to the socialist movement. The decolonization of Africa is analysed in
philosophical terms, so that the political tasks of socialists in Africa will
be distinguished from, and co-ordinated with, the tasks of socialists where
different conditions prevail.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The mental energy
and profundity of mind which can embark on an exercise of this kind, when Kwame
Nkrumah is immersed in the political chores of administering a developing
country and of uniting a divided continent, are too apparent to need
under-lining.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Certainly a new wind is blowing over Africa. The
spirit of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> is awakened. This
renewed presence is acknowledged across the continents. Not only are
academicians and intellectuals reviving their interest in <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b>. They have also
questioned and are questioning the decades of neglect in the study of the ideas
of the man. Agitations are on foot at centres of learning to incorporate such
studies into the curriculum of university studies in Africa. The agitations do
not resist the continued studies of Western philosophers like Thales, Plato,
Aristotle and others. They make a just and positive demand that <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> be added to them.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In the politics of Ghana today the spirit of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> looms large. <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 255, 102); color: black;">Political</span></b> parties which were
even opposed to the policies of the man today seek a certain accommodation with
his commitments. Not only does the current President remain unambiguous in his
ideological commitment to the ideals of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b>
but also the flag bearer of the main opposition party has stated his commitment
to the Pan-African project of the foremost Pan-African Proponent, <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b>. No longer are the
old folks of that opposition secure in their age-old condemnations of the Man
of African Destiny in the face of the rising and increasing youth
acknowledgement of that man in their own ranks.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This renewed and wide spreading interest in <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> has occasioned
discomfort, however, in the souls of certain persons who have taken the
strategic option of attacking the very intellectual foundations of the man in
the name of the man. This transparent mission to distort and revise Nkrumah’s
fundamental ideas and commitments in favour of what he stands against is
targeted at the youth of Africa and of the Diaspora. But the spirit of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b>, awakened by this
wicked design of low <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 255, 102); color: black;">political</span></b>
spirits, has invoked a quick response in THE MIND OF <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">KWAME</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">NKRUMAH</span></b>: MANUAL FOR THE STUDY OF <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">CONSCIENCISM</span></b>.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This manual does not only simplify the reading
and understanding of the statement of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> Nkrumah’s fundamental ideas in his book, <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">CONSCIENCISM</span></b>, through guiding
the reader over its pages, chapter by chapter, but as well engages in a radical
and militant combat of that distortionist and revisionist trend promoted by
fifth columnists who have taken positions within what <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> Afful calls the <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> movement. Addressed
to the youth of Africa and the Diaspora, this manual is the first of its kind
to breakdown the technical philosophical language of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> to easily accessible terms of ordinary
language. It is to be read alongside the book, <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">CONSCIENCISM</span></b>, itself.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In its opening pages, the Manual addresses the
youth and explains the necessity of reading Nkrumah’s book in the flesh rather
than the second hand or interpretative versions of it. The Foreword traces a
brief history of attitudes towards philosophy in general and particularly
towards <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">CONSCIENCISM</span></b>
within the public domain as well as within the intelligentsia. These are
attitudes that have not facilitated the appreciation of the profundity of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> Nkrumah’s thought and
practice. In the Preface, vital concepts of the book are explained prior to the
in-depth treatment of the chapters.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This is followed with guiding the reader through
the Introduction of the book, <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">CONSCIENCISM</span></b>.
In this respect, a portion of Nkrumah’s quotation from Fredriech Engels’ letter
that he leaves out is recalled to provide a better understanding of what he
says. The importance of the Introduction rests in the fact of its revealing <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> Nkrumah’s anxiety to
quicken the liberation and reconstruction of Africa through the conscious use
or application of principles of thought to understand the dynamics of society
in scientific terms in order to effectively change it. This special feature in
Nkrumah’s intellectual attitude is well understood in comparison to the
physical scientist’s attitude towards applicable research.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In the first chapter, the Manual explains the
difficulties of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b>
Nkrumah’s presentation style and devices a strategy for following the presentation
easily. In this way, it leads the reader along the themes that <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> explores in his
development of the history of Western intellectual thought. It identifies the
main themes and then the sub-themes. The reader is then led to follow the
development of themes and sub-themes individually all over the chapter and
shows how they are connected with each other in a logical flow. This
interesting pursuit of themes and sub-themes in the pages of the book is in the
nature of hunting an animal and the unforgettable experience of landing at the
catch makes the idea stick and memorable.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
But if the first chapter explores the history of <i>abstract</i>
thought in Western intellectual history, the second chapter shows the immediate
<i>concrete</i> nature of those thoughts through illustrations of their
social content. So that what had hitherto appeared as mind-splitting about
nothing immediately comes alive with passions being aroused in this to that
direction. Here, the themes and sub-themes are again in display and such themes
as the concepts of egalitarianism and revolution are portrayed in their
evolution within the demands of the struggles to free man from the clerical
restrictions and then the clergy-oligarch diarchy that compromised increased
production and freedom for the human spirit.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Chapter three then takes the reader through and
focuses their attention on the role of ideology in the pursuit of the perfect
society and therefore in the everyday life of the individual and society. The
definition of ideology offered is innovative. Every society exhibits one or
more. The Manual simplifies the explanation and, ideology, in <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> Nkrumah’s terms, is
understood not essentially as a written statement but as the total set of
values, written and largely unwritten, that man develops for the conduct and
direction of all for the freedom and fulfilment of society and the individual.
The need for such an ideology out of the historically-conditioned conflicting
ideologies in Africa is then advocated.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The details of that ideology are outlined in
chapter four. With the understanding that an ideology is displayed in and
permeates every sphere of the socio-<b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 255, 102); color: black;">political</span></b> life of a society and is exhibited in the
philosophical system and theories in all studies, the Manual systematically
shows those outlines. The book <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">CONSCIENCISM</span></b>
finally emerges as a philosophical statement that elucidates and theoretically
defends scientific socialist ideology to guide the African Revolution. The
Manual, in this portrayal of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">CONSCIENCISM</span></b>,
sees <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b>
not as solely concerned with the fusion of the three dominant strands of
African culture but as a complete thought system for every socio-<b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 255, 102); color: black;">political</span></b> purpose.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The final chapter of the Manual portrays the
combat against contemporary revisionism and neglect conducted in cyberspace. It
is a defence of the principles of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b>
by the author of the Manual against the revisionism and neglect of apparently
influential figures in the Nkrumaist and Pan-African movement. The
featured figures are Christian <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b>
Agbodza, the self-appointed Professor of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b>, and Elder Chinweizu Chinweizu,
respectively.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The author of the manual is Lang T.K.A. Nubuor,
the General Secretary of the erstwhile People’s Revolutionary League of Ghana
and a member of the National Defence Committee that attempted to build an
alternate State to replace the neo-colonial state structure through a system of
People’s and Workers’ Defence Committees upon the inception of the December 31,
1981 coup in Ghana.</div>
With <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b> the simple process of the two
contraries the theoretical foundation of mechanistic determination and the
dominant magical aspect of communalist thought dis- appear in one fell swoop if
only because <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
gives us a new concept in cosmic contrast. “ There can be no material grounds
on which the adjectives caused uncaused or finite or infinite can be
descriptively applied to the universe. No one pure gold discourse can logically
constitute material ground of any of the epithets is only left and they should
be postulates. If however one postulates a cause for what there is, one is
thereby committed to the conception of an outside and inside of the world this
need not lead to any irreducible contradiction for whether the world is finite
or infinite depends upon the mode of conceiving of the world. Hence the
opposition is strictly dialectical beyond mere formal dialectics however one
significance of the cosmic contrast of the inside and outside of the world is
that it implies and a knowledge meant that there is a conversion of a process
which commences outside the world into the world and its contents. ( <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 153, 153); color: black;">Nkrumah</span></b> <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b> him Heinemann
publishers London) <br />
Ghanain society is a microcosm of African society today. In that the three
layers of present-day African society are to be found. These are the strands of
traditional Africa, of Islamic Africa and of Euro Christian Africa. <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b> sets out to
provide a set of values a body of coherent principles which can provide a
rational rallying point for the best in each of these three components of
present-day Africa. In this grand effort to distill a body of connected thought
out of the three Africa’s, <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
has to fight on at least three planes, everywhere applying uncompromisingly the
test of reality. Reality is objective and is discovered through practical
struggle active struggle is thus the means and the test of all knowledge.<br />
<b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b> has
to fight in the fields of philosophy. It has to fight in the field the moral
and social theory. And it has to fight in the field of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 255, 102); color: black;">political</span></b> theory and
practice. Put in another way, <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
has its philosophy, it’s moral and social theory, and arising from these a <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 255, 102); color: black;">political</span></b> theory. The
practical application of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
in Ghana and Africa and also sustained struggle in all three categories of
thought. Consciencism’s philosophy is based on the following principles:<br />
1-that matter is the source of all knowledge<br />
2-that’s matter is a plume of forces in tension<br />
3-that because it it is a Plenum of forces intention matter is capable of
self induced motion<br />
4-that the motion of matter is both uni-linear and in leaps that is to say
change in matter is both quantitative and qualitative<br />
5-that mind has a distinct existence even though it is a product of matter<br />
6-that there is interaction between matter and mind but that matter is
primary<br />
7-that in this interaction of matter and mind assumptions theory and
conclusions are permissible but that such assumptions theories and conclusions
are valid only when confirmed in practice<br />
This philosophy is materialist in content its approach is rational its
touchtone is practice.<br />
When we turn to the practical application of this philosophy the first step
is to clear our individual thinking of the cobwebs of irrationality,
half-truths unproved assertions and superstitions. We have to subject the ideas
floating about in our individual minds to the test of rationality and above all
to the test of practice. We have to reject all ideas and notions that can
neither be verified nor confirmed by practice.<br />
As regards the thinking of the community <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b> enjoins that we wage a relentless
war against mysticism magic and all of these views which postulate the
supernatural in an attempt to explain phenomena and events around us. If there
is any phenomenon which we can I explain then this must be due to the fact that
our knowledge is still limited. We cannot go by way of claiming that the phenomena
is supernatural and hence inexplicable in terms of human reason.<br />
The African mind<br />
It is here that <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
will perhaps have to fight its fiercest battles. For the primitive (ie. un
cultivated) African mind has a propensity towards mysticism and
supernaturalism. Incidentally this is a feature the primitive minds everywhere.
The liberation of the African mind from such severe limitations is a social
objective or mission of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>.
And this mission will be achieved to the extent that we can fish out, grappled
with and vanquish all unprovable unverifiable assertions theories ideas and
beliefs. In philosophical terms <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b>
has to do battle with idealism and its handmaiden metaphysics. A little
reflection will show what immense gains the African will make once he liberates
himself and his society from the crippling mental cogs of mysticism and
superstition. A little reflection also will show how much more successful the
African will be in transforming his environment one see in thrones action ( ie.
practice) as the touchstone of knowledge in place of metaphysics( ie. Abstruse
reasoning). <br />
<b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b> has
its moral and social theory. Its principal tenets are:<br />
1- that all men are equal<br />
2- that each man is an end in himself and not just the means to an end. <br />
3- That the group is responsible for the individual<br />
4- that the free development of the group is the condition for the free
development of the individual<br />
Here again the student of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
has not to come to grips with other moral and social theories, for example he
simply cannot tolerate a moral or social theory which preaches racial
discrimination as in South Africa and racial superiority as in Central America
the USA or racial supremacy as under fascism. Nor can <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b> accommodate
social theories that support a caste system whether this is based on religion
as in India or on the collar up of the skin as in South Africa and the southern
state’s of the USA or on birth as under feudalism or on the control of the
means of production as under capitalism. These systems are either founded upon
or have come to accept the inequality of man. They are opposed to the view that
the group is responsible for the individual and that the activity of the
individual must conduce to the well-being of the group. <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b> condemns and
rejects that development of the individual which results in the cramping or stunted
growth of either individuals.<br />
Again the moral theory of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
will have a great affect on religious values. <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Consciencism</span></b> does not quarrel with religion
which it recognizes as a necessary instrument for spreading moral values in any
community. The <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
is vitally interested in the moral values disseminated by religions. Because
they uphold the system of apartheid. The teachings of the Dutch Reformed Church
in South Africa for example are antithetical to <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>. Nor can <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b> reconcile itself either with
that practice of Islamic religion that supports slavery or with that form of
paganism which endorses human sacrifice. These values though shrouded under the
cloak of religion are harmful, wrong and repugnant to <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b> because they
violate the dignity of man and negate the principle of the equality of man. The
principal significance of <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">consciencism</span></b>
in the field of religion lies in this fact namely that it compels a
re-examination and reevaluation of the moral values upheld by every religion.
The aim of such a reevaluation must be to enthrone the view of man set out at
the beginning of this section.<br />
Seeking to connect Talakawa Summit
with Ujamaa cannot be a farfetched exercise because all the early African
discourses of society such as Aminu Kano’s Democratic Humanism, Awo’s
Democratic Socialism, <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(153, 255, 153); color: black;">Kwame</span></b>
Nkrumah’s <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(160, 255, 255); color: black;">Conscientism</span></b>,
Kaunda’s Humanism or Milton Obote’s Freedom Charter and even Gaddafi’s
Jamahiriya had the same origin. At least, this was how we treated them in our
class works on African <b><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(255, 255, 102); color: black;">political</span></b>
thought. They all came from moral reprehension against the evils of colonial
capitalism even as these early African leaders did not accept Socialism per
see. They, therefore, sought a third way to development, with each of them
coining his own terminology as listed above. <br />
Ghana under President Kwame Nkrumah adopted the political and economic
policy of Conscientism. Conscientism was the development philosophy of Kwame
Nkrumah which emphasized the importance of self sacrifice, home grown economic
development and self-reliance. Nkrumah clearly understood international
dependence as a form of neo-colonialism. Nkrumah saw neo-colonialism as the
last stage of imperialism. Imperialism was a step-child of mercantilism. <br />
Under Conscientism, Ghana embarked on the creation of conditions for economic
take-off. The Okosombo Hydro-electric Project on the Volta River was one of
such initiatives.<br />
However, the Nkrumah times were Cold War times. Nkrumah’s anti-imperialist and
anti-capitalism stand earned him a CIA inspired coup d’ etat in 1966. His dream
of a united, prosperous and self-reliant Africa was not be realized.
Imperialism sabotaged Nkrumah’s dream.<br />
Tanzania under Mwalimu Julius Nyerere adopted the Ujamaa policy. Ujamaa
emphasized family or community based development. Such a development was to be
based on self-reliance, social, economic and political equality. Self-reliance
meant the transformation of economic and cultural attitudes of the people.
Nyerere exhorted Tanzanians to work for themselves as well as for the whole
community.<br />
Though Ujamaa was declared “a heroic failure”, the policy moulded the Tanzanian
personality, national harmony and stability. The implementation of
villagization production system could not succeed because it was too top-down.
Social mobilization was not adequate to prepare the people for life in new
conditions.<br />
Both Ghana and Tanzania emerged as stable and resilient societies. Though
economic take-off did not happen under African socialism, social cohesion did
happen under African socialism. However, African socialism was not a sufficient
condition for economic take-off.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">REFERENCES</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span class="citation">Birmingham, David (1998). <i>Kwame Nkrumah: The Father of
African Nationalism</i>. Athens: Ohio University Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8214-1242-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8214-1242-6">0-8214-1242-6</a>.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span class="citation">Tuchscherer, Konrad (2006). "Kwame Francis Nwia Kofie
Nkrumah". In Coppa, Frank J.. <i>Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators</i>.
New York: Peter Lang. pp. 217–220. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8204-5010-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8204-5010-3">0-8204-5010-3</a>.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span class="citation">Davidson, Basil (2007) [1973]. <i>Black Star: A View of the
Life and Times of Kwame Nkrumah</i>. Oxford, UK: James Currey. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84701-010-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84701-010-0">978-1-84701-010-0</a>.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span class="citation">Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2006). "Nyerere and Nkrumah:
Towards African Unity". <i>Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era</i>
(Third ed.). Pretoria, South Africa: New Africa Press. pp. 347–355. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9802534-1-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9802534-1-1">0-9802534-1-1</a>.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span class="citation">Poe, D. Zizwe (2003). <i>Kwame Nkrumah's Contribution to
Pan-African Agency</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-50537-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-50537-9">0-203-50537-9</a>.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span class="citation">James, C. L. R. (1977). <i>Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution</i>.
London: Allison & Busby. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85031-461-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85031-461-5">0-85031-461-5</a>.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Intelligence_Agency" title="Defense Intelligence Agency">Defense Intelligence Agency</a>,
"<a href="http://www.governmentattic.org/docs/DIA_AnalysisKwameNkrumahOfGhana1966.pdf">Supplement,
Kwame Nkrumah, President of Ghana</a>", 12-January-1966.</li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>bookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-7642959387412573212012-07-23T04:54:00.001-07:002012-07-23T05:06:46.183-07:00CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL ANALYSISINTRODUCTION
Modern and/or political analysis is an introduction to the concepts underlying modern approaches to the study of politics. The scope of the discipline is delineated and the foundations of empirical research, including the philosophy and methodology of science especially as these apply to social science, is considered. Various alternatives and critiques is also presented and evaluated.
This course is intended to introduce students to some of the ongoing debates regarding the study of politics, or politology. It is not really a philosophy of social science course, nor do we try to cover the history of political analysis. Rather, the course addresses some of the more important philosophical questions underlying the theoretical and methodological choices that all political scientists must make, and relates these to recent work and debates in the discipline.
The most obvious of these questions is “Is it possible to have a scientific study of politics?” But there are also other questions regarding theories of knowledge and the nature of society that are relevant to current political analyses. This course first covers a number of these epistemological and ontological debates.
The purpose of the course (political analysis)
(1) The course aims to familiarize students with a number of key approaches to the study of politics. Students will be introduced to a range of approaches and encouraged to reflect on the opportunities for and limits of independent research presented by each approach.
(2) The course aims to help students develop an understanding of what is involved in carrying out independent research in the fields of political science and political theory. The course will guide students through the basic problems of research design in political science/theory, focusing primarily on the problem of identifying a researchable project.
• To be able to understand some of the key approaches to political analysis
•To be able to appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of a variety of perspectives commonly employed in political analysis
• To be able to assess the applicability of various approaches to a variety of research questions
• To have engaged in independent research
To introduce a variety of modeling strategies that you will see applied in political science literature. Politics as process has both institutional and non-institutional dimensions. The purpose of this course is to explain the non-institutional political processes and thereby to sensitize the students on informal processes of politics.
To introduce the basic concepts and approaches related to modern political analysis.
To equip the students with methods of political analysis.
Key Points
• Political analysis involves three main approaches; empirical, normative, and semantic.
• Theorizing normatively about politics remains difficult and often contentious. While
recognizing this, it should be noted that one can exaggerate these difficulties, and a
moral relativism is not the inevitable consequence of political philosophy.
• In practice, these three forms of political analysis are not mutually exclusive. We need to know what is, before we can talk sensibly about what ought to be. Similarly, empirical analysis presupposes some normative assumptions.
• Empirical political analysis tends to use either inductive or deductive reasoning. The former can be illustrated by behaviouralism, the latter by rational choice theory
Modern Empirical and Semantic Analysis
The second type of contemporary analysis common to politics, as well as most other academic disciplines, is empirical. Empirical analysis seeks to identify observable phenomena in the real world with a view to establishing what is, rather than what ought to be.
Empirical analysis, of course, is the basis of the natural sciences, and many so-called positivist political analysts seek to bring to bear what they see as the impartial and value free methods of the natural sciences to the study of political phenomena.
The third type of analysis commonly used in politics is analysis of a semantic kind.
As its name suggests, this form of analysis is concerned with clarifying the meaning of the concepts we use. This is an important function in political studies. So many of the concepts used in politics have no commonly accepted definition, and, indeed, have been described as ‘essentially contested concepts’. Defining what we mean by key terms such as democracy and freedom, then, is a crucial starting point.
In reality, the three forms of political analysis described above are not used inde-
pendently of each other. As Wolff (1996: 3) succinctly points out, ‘studying how things are helps to explain how things can be, and studying how they can be is indispensable for assessing how they ought to be’. Thus, in the first place, normative claims are, at least partly, based on empirical knowledge. In the case of Hobbes, to give one example, the normative claim that we ought to rely on an all-powerful sovereign to protect us derives from the largely empirical assumption that human nature is so brutally com-petitive that there is a great risk to our security without the protection of the so-called ‘Leviathan’. Conversely, a great deal of empirical analysis presupposes some normative assumptions. This can be seen, in particular, in our choice of investigation. Thus, students of politics choose, say, to investigate the causes of war because it is assumed that war is undesirable and therefore we should try to eliminate it.
It is instructive at this point to appreciate the differences between what might be
called empirical and normative political theory. From a positivist perspective, the
former refers to the generation of testable hypotheses of political phenomena. An
example would be a hypothesis which postulated that democracy can only flourish in societies with a market economy and private ownership.
REFERENCES
1. Varma S. P., 2002, Modern Political Theory, Vikas Publication, New Delhi.
2. Almond G A and Powell G B, Comparative Politics: A Development Approach, Boston, Little Brown and Co.
3. Dahl Robert, 2003, Modern Political Analysis, Pierson Education, Delhi.
4. Gupta Sachdeo and Singh S K, Political Theory and Ideology, Ajanta Prakashan, Delhi, 1987.bookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-54026328287753289512010-11-08T23:48:00.000-08:002010-11-08T23:48:36.108-08:00TEN DEFINITIONS OF ECONOMICS1. According to Harper (2001), Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from οἶκος (oikos, "house") + νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)".Current economic models emerged from the broader field of political economy in the late 19th century. A primary stimulus for the development of modern economics was the desire to use an empirical approach more akin to the physical sciences. (Clark, 1998). <br />
<br />
2. Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business, finance and government, but also in crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. (Iannaccone, L. R. 1998). <br />
<br />
3. According to Allen (1977), economics is a Social science that analyzes and describes the consequences of choices made concerning scarce productive resources. Economics is the study of how individuals and societies choose to employ those resources: what goods and services will be produced, how they will be produced, and how they will be distributed among the members of society. Economics is customarily divided into microeconomics and macroeconomics. Of major concern to macroeconomists are the rate of economic growth, the inflation rate, and the rate of unemployment. Specialized areas of economic investigation attempt to answer questions on a variety of economic activity; they include agricultural economics, economic development, economic history, environmental economics, industrial organization, international trade, labour economics, money supply and banking, public finance, urban economics, and welfare economics. Specialists in mathematical economics and econometrics provide tools used by all economists. The areas of investigation in economics overlap with many other disciplines, notably history, mathematics, political science, and sociology.<br />
<br />
4. Rutherford, (1996) opined that economics is a Study of the economy. Classic economics concentrates on how the forces of supply and demand allocate scarce product and service resources. Macroeconomics studies a nation or the world's economy as a whole, using data about inflation, unemployment and industrial production to understand the past and predict the future. Microeconomics studies the behavior of specific sectors of the economy, such as companies, industries, or households. Over the years, various schools of economic thought have gained prominence, including Keynesian Economics, Monetarism and Supply-Side Economics.<br />
<br />
5. The study of the relation of available scarce means to supply for a proposed end; economists assume that people have wants and needs, and then study how societies are organized to supply them, trying to establish whether one method is better than another. Micro-economics explains how demand and supply affect prices, wages, rentals, and interest rates. Macro-economics focuses on the aggregate (large-scale) demand for goods and services, and especially on the relationship between unemployment and the economy. Marxist economics sees the economy as a reflection of the history and sociology of a society. In particular, it focuses on the historical evolution of, and the conflict between, classes.<br />
<br />
6. economics, study of how human beings allocate scarce resources to produce various commodities and how those commodities are distributed for consumption among the people in society (see distribution). The essence of economics lies in the fact that resources are scarce, or at least limited, and that not all human needs and desires can be met. How to distribute these resources in the most efficient and equitable way is a principal concern of economists. The field of economics has undergone a remarkable expansion in the 20th cent. as the world economy has grown increasingly large and complex. Today, economists are employed in large numbers in private industry, government, and higher education (see economic planning). Many subjects, such as political science and sociology, which were once regarded as part of the study of economics, have today become separate disciplines, although the study of any one generally implies a working knowledge of the other<br />
<br />
7. "Economics is the study of people in the ordinary business of life." (Marshal, 1890)<br />
<br />
8. "Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between given ends and scarce means which have alternative uses." (Robbins, 1932)<br />
9. Economics is the "study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people." (Paul A. Samuelson 1948)<br />
<br />
10. economics includes the study of labor, land, and investments, of money, income, and production, and of taxes and government expenditures. Economists seek to measure well-being, to learn how well-being may increase overtime, and to evaluate the well-being of the rich and the poor. The most famous book in economics is the Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations written by Adam Smith, and published in 1776 in Scotland.<br />
<br />
11. Mark Blaug (2007) defines economics is the branch of social science that deals with the production and distribution and consumption of goods and services and their management. <br />
Economics therefore is the social science that examines how people choose to use limited or scarce resources in attempting to satisfy their unlimited wants. It also studies how the forces of supply and demand allocate scarce resourcesbookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com79tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-24941982836582687832010-08-30T02:26:00.000-07:002010-08-30T02:26:03.398-07:00tragic heroism using oedipus the king from greek theatre<b>introduction</b><br />
a tragic hero has the potential for greatness but is doomed to fail. he is trapped in a si tuation where he cannot win. he makes some sort of mistake, and this causes his fal l from greatness. a tragic hero is usually born into nobility, and falls because of a certain flaw such as pride. sometimes too much self-confidence leads to disaster as in the classic novel oedipus the king the pride that oedipus has causes him to make the numerous errors of judgment.<br />
<b>oedipus the king - a tragic hero</b><br />
oedipus the king is a story of trials and tribulations for a man who believed he had it all. being known as the king of thebes that had saved the town from a killer sphinx did more than just boost his ego, it made him king. with the sudden fame and glory oedipus became a person of high status that was admired and envied by many of the townspeople. oedipus the king can be seen as a tragic hero which is defined as a person of high status who experiences a downfall due to their tragic flaw.<br />
oedipus was considered a high society figure in two ways, being the heir to the city of cornith and being the king of thebes. thinking he was born to the king and queen of cornith, oedipus was the future heir of the throne. this thought alone made oedipus feel superior and more noble than the regular townsman. the second reason that oedipus was considered of high status is because he solved the riddle of the sphinx, saved thebes from disaster, and claimed the throne of former king lauis. oedipus was the only person to come remotely close to solving the riddle of the sphinx, therefore many looked at him as a superior being. oedipus knew that the townspeople held him with such high regard and so he took advantage of that. when one feels as if they are superior to everyone it can cause a lot of damage. being considered a tragic hero is not something that most people would want to be called. oedipus could have avoided the tragic hero fate by simply listening to his intuition and paying closer attention to the details of his own life. situations may be avoided easily if the time is taken to evaluate the situation as a whole and not just evaluating its pieces. oedipus the king is a perfect example of how living life for the greed of ones self can lead to the demise and destruction of loved ones.<br />
the herendous events that took place in oedipus' life are more dramatic than one ever wishes to experience. the downfall begins with the plague of thebes. the entire extistense of life in thebes is threatened until the murderer of lauis is reveled. oedipus vows to seek out the killer and get sweet revenge. tiresas the blind prophet bust oedipus' bubble with the news that he is not what he seems to be. tiresas can see things clearly even though he is blind.<br />
<br />
<b>narcissistic oedipus – tragic hero</b><br />
in the play oedipus rex by sophocles, oedipus is a classic tragic hero. according to aristotle's definition, oedipus is a tragic hero because he is a king whose life falls apart when he finds out his life story. there are a number of characteristics described by aristotle that identify a tragic hero. for example, a tragic hero must cause his own downfall; his fate is not deserved, and his punishment exceeds the crime; he also must be of noble stature and have greatness. oedipus is in love with his idealized self. all of the above characteristics make oedipus a tragic hero according to aristotle's ideas about tragedy. <br />
using oedipus as an ideal model, aristotle says that a tragic hero must be an important or influential man who makes an error in judgment, and who must then suffer the consequences of his actions. those actions are seen when oedipus forces teiresias to reveal his destiny and his father's name. when teiresias tries to warn him by saying "this day will give you parents and destroy you" (sophocles line 428), oedipus still does not care and proceeds with his questioning. the tragic hero must learn a lesson from his errors in judgment and become an example to the audience of what happens when great men fall from their lofty social or political positions. <br />
according to psychologists, a person who is great, who is admired everywhere, and needs this admiration to survive, has one of the extreme forms of narcissism, which is grandiosity. grandiosity can be seen when a person admires himself, his qualities, such as beauty, cleverness, and talents, and his success and achievements greatly. if any one of these illusions is lost, then a severe depression could follow. those actions happen when the herdsman tells oedipus who his mother is, and oedipus replies "oh, oh, then everything has come out true. light, i shall not look on you again. i have been born where i should not be born, i have been married where i should not marry, i have killed whom i should not kill; now all is clear" (sophocles lines 1144). <br />
oedipus's decision to pursue his questioning is wrong; his grandiosity blinded him and, therefore, his fate is not deserved, but it is far beyond his control. a prophecy is foretold to laius, the father of oedipus, that the destiny of oedipus is a terrible one beyond his control. but when it is prophesized to oedipus, he sets forth from the city of his foster parents in order to prevent this terrible fate from occurring. oedipus's destiny is not deserved because he is being punished for his parent's actions. <br />
his birth parents seek the advice of the delphi oracle, who recommends that they should not have any children. when the boy is born, laius is overcome with terror when he remembers the oracle. oedipus is abandoned by his birth parents and is denied their love. when a child is denied the love of parents then physiological problems often result. the birth of oedipus presets his destiny to result in tragedy even though he is of noble birth. <br />
in tragedies, protagonists are usually of the nobility to make their falls seem greater. oedipus just happens to be born a prince, and he has saved a kingdom that is rightfully his from the sphinx. his destiny is to be of noble stature from birth, which is denied to him by his parents, but given back by the sphinx. his nobility deceived him as well as his reflection, since it shows only his perfect, wonderful face and not his inner world, his pain, his history. when he relies on his status, he is blind, not physically, but emotionally. he is blind in his actions; therefore he does not see that the questioning would bring him only misery. <br />
<br />
later, after his self-inflicted blinding, oedipus sees his actions as wrongdoing when he says "what use are my eyes to me, who could never - see anything pleasant again?" (sophocles line 1293) and that blindness does not necessarily have to be physical as we can se when he says, "if i had sight, i know not with what eyes i would have looked" (sophocles line 1325). in the play oedipus rex, sophocles portrays the main character, oedipus, as a good-natured person who has bad judgment and is frail. oedipus makes a few fatal decisions and is condemned to profound suffering because of them. aristotle is correct in that oedipus' misfortune happens because of his tragic flaw. if he hadn't been so judgmental or narcissistic he would never have killed king laius and called teiresias a liar. in the beginning, teiresias is simply trying to ease him slowly into the truth; but oedipus is too proud to see any truths, and he refuses to believe that he could have been responsible for such a horrible crime. he learns a lesson about life and how there is more to it than just one person's fate.<br />
<b>the roles and relationship of choruses with the hero.</b><br />
in ancient greek plays, there was also the chorus. the choruses were a group of men, who played roles of either male or female characters, such as the elders, old women. they spoke together, and their speeches often made comments on what's going on in the play. this particular feature the chorus in the play oedipus has three basic functions. firstly, to act as bystanders throughout the play, observing what goes on, reacting and offering opinions at regular intervals throughout the play.<br />
chorus discharges some broad functions in all classical tragedies. the structure of a greek tragedy is determined by the chorus. after the prologue, it is with the entry of the chorus that a greek tragedy begins. various episodes are also marked off by choric odes. the conclusion of a greek tragedy occurs with the exode or the exit song of the chorus. it is the function of the chorus to comment on actions and events. it also sometimes questions the characters. its standard role is that of the moderator. at times it represents the view-point of the common spectator and in some cases it represents the view-point of the dramatist himself.<br />
<br />
the functions of the chorus are very well performed in oedipus rex. in the very first ode the chorus depicts the horror of the plague and expresses an apprehension about the message from the oracle of delphi. other odes comment on the action that has taken place after the last ode and build an atmosphere appropriate to that stage of the play. it plays the role of a peace-maker between the king and creon and succeeds in getting the king’s pardon for the latter. after the exit of teiresias it comments on the terrible predictions which teiresias has made but shows determination to support the king. its most significant response is when oedipus and jocasta have expressed irreverent thoughts against the oracles. at many other times also they reflect the dominant mood and help to deepen it. when oedipus imagines that he is the son of the goodness of luck, the chorus, immediately sing that their master, oedipus, might be the son of apollo.<br />
<br />
in the fifth or last choric ode in oedipus rex, the chorus reflects the dejection of oedipus and says that all the generations of moral man add up to nothing. this ode must not be regarded as reflecting the final mood and impression of the play, for the impression is as much of the greatness of the human spirit as of the insignificance of man and the transitoriness of his happiness. this ode must, therefore, be looked upon only as reflecting a final judgment of it. oedipus remains forceful even in his downfall; in a sense he is still heroic.<br />
<br />
the chorus takes part in the dialogues also. when oedipus consults them about ending the plague in the city, they express disappointment that the oracle had not guided them about the identity of laius’ murderer. they also tell him what they know about the murder of their previous king and its circumstances. when creon, learning that the king has accused him of treason, comes on the stage he talks to the chorus, who tell him that the king’s accusation was probably made in the heat of anger. creon asked if the king looked absolutely serious while making the charge and they rightly say that it is not for them to look into the eyes of his master when he speaks. when oedipus has almost passed a sentence upon creon, jocasta arrives on the scene and first talks to the chorus. they request her to settle the difference between the two men. they are worried when they see jocasta going into the palace in a very dejected mood, and they give expression to their apprehension. oedipus asks them about the shepherd who gave the infant to the corinthian, they answer that his queen would be able to answer the question better. they sympathize with oedipus when they see him after he has blinded himself. it is clear, thus, that the chorus never takes a direct hand in the action. it does not consist only of spectators but influences the action in various subtle ways.<br />
<br />
the contribution of the chorus in oedipus rex is considerable. they link the play with common humanity. in some sense they are often in the position of the ideal spectator. they fill in the gaps in the action when no other character is there on the stage. they add to it the element of melody which must have been one of the attractions of greek tragedy. they provide an appropriate shift between the titanic, heroic figure of oedipus and the mass of common humanity represented by the two shepherds in oedipus res. the tragedy of oedipus and its relevance to common life is very well stressed by the chorus in its exit ode or exode.<br />
how has the respective choruses enhances our understanding or appreciation of the dramatic test<br />
oedipus the king is a dynamic tale, expertly making use of all assets available to forge and shape a truly spellbinding play. as sophocles weaves the plot throughout the tragedy, he manages to increase the tension and pace of the story through the development of all assets, particularly with regards to the role of the chorus. in the beginning, the chorus attempts to position itself in the audience’s mind as the population of thebes, and functions largely as petitioners, relatively indecisive to the plot. the play moves on, though, and by the middle third, the chorus begins to act as a moderator, providing a sober perspective on the heated arguments that rage throughout, attempting to infuse the arguing parties with the spirit of reconciliation, or at least keep the tempers from taking control of the characters’ actions. as the end approaches, the chorus does indeed render judgment upon oedipus, condemning him, in the eyes of the audience and himself as the cause of the plague of thebes. the chorus of oedipus the king starts the play as mere petitioners, seemingly unimportant in the grand plot swirling about them, but gradually become more involved, taking active roles in the progress of the story, until the climax.<br />
in the beginning, they have found themselves threatened by the plague that has descended on thebes, and so open the play by petitioning for help. there is no sword of thought which will protect us" (12). here, at the end of all things, the chorus has finally realized its potential as a major and integral part of the plot, and a prime standard bearer of the ongoing themes, particular the respect to pity view of oedipus, that really makes this story such a tragedy. by the middle third, the chorus plays a small role as mediator. to a certain extent, the chorus does manage to accomplish this goal, keeping the parties from breaking into violent disagreement, though reconciliation proves to be beyond the powers of the chorus. men of all ages-some not yet strong enough to fly far from the nest, others heavy with age, priests, of zeus in my case, and these are picked men from the city's youth" (2). this transformation from the meek fear of the opening third, to the judgmental pity of the final third is a major theme progressed by the chorus, proved as they lament oedipus:o suffering dreadful for mankind to see, most dreadful of all i ever saw. in the beginning, they serve only as respectful observers, mindful of their station but grieved by the darkness that has befallen thebes. the evolution of the chorus throughout is certainly quite profound, bringing together the many varied elements of the story into one dynamic play, lending authenticity and genuine distress to the dire straits of tragic oedipus, once king of mighty thebes. i have many questions to ask you, much i wish to know; my eyes are drawn towards you-but i cannot bear to look. it is the petitioning of the chorus that first brings to light the fit of evil that befalls the city, and sets oedipus on his doomed quest to solve the problems.<br />
<b>conclusions</b><br />
oedipus is in love with his idealized self, but neither the grandiose nor the depressive narcissus can really love himself (miller 67). all of the above characteristics make oedipus a tragic hero according to aristotle's ideas about tragedy, and a narcissist. using oedipus as an ideal model, aristotle says that a tragic hero must be an important or influential man who makes an error in judgment, and who must then suffer the consequences of his actions. those actions are seen when oedipus forces teiresias to reveal his destiny and his father's name. when teiresias tries to warn him by saying i say that you and your most dearly loved are wrapped together in a hideous sin, blind to the horror of it (sophocles 428). oedipus still does not care and proceeds with his questioning as if he did not understand what teiresias was talking about. the tragic hero must learn a lesson from his errors in judgment and become an example to the audience of what happens when great men fall from their lofty social or political positions. <br />
oedipus is abandoned by his birth parents and is denied their love, which is what results in what miller calls depression as denial of the self. depression results from a denial of one's own emotional reactions, and we cannot really love if we deny our truth, the truth about our parents and caregivers as, well as about ourselves (miller 43). the birth of oedipus presets his destiny to result in tragedy even though he is of noble birth. in tragedies, protagonists are usually of the nobility that makes their falls seem greater. oedipus just happens to be born a prince, and he has saved a kingdom that is rightfully his from the sphinx. his destiny is to be of noble stature from birth, which is denied to him by his parents, but given back by the sphinx. his nobility deceived him as well as his reflection, since it shows only his perfect, wonderful face and not his inner world, his pain, his history (miller 66). when he relies on his status, he is blind, not physically, but emotionally. he is blind in his actions; therefore he does not see that the questioning would bring him only misery. later, after his self- inflicted blinding, oedipus sees his actions as wrongdoing when he says what use are my eyes to me, who could never - see anything pleasant again? (sophocles 1293) and that blindness does not necessarily have to be physical as we can se when he says, if i had sight, i know not with what eyes i would have looked (sophocles 1325). in the play oedipus rex, sophocles portrays the main character, oedipus, as a good- natured person who has bad judgment and is frail. <br />
oedipus makes a few fatal decisions and is condemned to profound suffering because of them. agreeing with aristotle that oedipus' misfortune happens because of his tragic flaw. if he hadn't been so judgmental or narcissistic, as miller would characterize a personality like oedipus, he would never have killed king laius and called teiresias a liar. in the beginning, teiresias is simply trying to ease him slowly into the truth; but oedipus is too proud to see any truths, and he refuses to believe that he could have been responsible for such a horrible crime. <br />
<b>references</b><br />
herodotus, in his histories (book 1.32), attributes this maxim to the 6th-century athenian statesman solon. <br />
dawe, r.d. ed. 2006 sophocles: oedipus rex, revised edition. cambridge : cambridge university press. p.1<br />
sir richard jebb in his commentary. cf. jeffrey rusten's 1990 commentary. greece & rome, 2nd ser., vol. 13, no. 1 (apr., 1966), pp. 37-49 <br />
sophocles. sophocles i: oedipus the king, oedipus at colonus, antigone. 2nd ed. grene, david and lattimore, richard, eds. chicago: university of chicago, 1991.bookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-44889831438281827642010-08-29T08:15:00.000-07:002010-08-29T08:15:38.580-07:00WHY DO WE STUDY CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ANALYSIS<b>INTRODUCTION</b><br />
Contemporary political analysis aims to examine the contemporary political analysis by looking at the various conceptual components involved with it. the course starts by discussing definitions of politics. it look at the nature of politics and how its very definition can underline the various possible approached to political analysis. From this initial discussion, contemporary political analysis spends two classes discussing classical and mainstream analytical approaches from which political analysis are made.<br />
The course then examine the debate between structure and agency, which often shapes how explanations can focus on political actors, or their surrounding context, to understand a certain political event. Discussions, then, turn towards how analyses can be made on political changes. It discusses how explanations are built over transformative political changes, such as democratization. <br />
An important relevant topic to political analysis is the notion of power. For this reason we study contemporary political analysis to examine the various conceptions of power, deriving from mainstream and non-mainstream research and their implications to the analysis of politics. From this discussion of power, we will turn to post-modern approach. Post-modern thought has created important challenges to social science in general. We examine these challenges and look at their effects on political analysis. From there, we then engage into discussions of the conceptual framework of materialism and idealism, examining the roles of ideas and material circumstances as determinant factors to understand political events. <br />
The last two classes in contemporary political analysis are devoted to two non-mainstream contemporary approaches to political analysis. The first one, discourse analysis, takes discourse as a concept to understand how politics is possible in contemporary post-modern conditions. The second one focus on how sovereignty is maintained in contemporary world through the imposition of a global logic based on capital relations. Contemporary political analysis will compare and contrast these last two approaches, examining their claims and limitations. <br />
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OBJECTIVES AND REASONS WHY WE STUDY CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ANALYSIS<br />
(1) The course aims to familiarize students with a number of key approaches to the study of politics. Students will be introduced to a range of approaches and encouraged to reflect on the opportunities for and limits of independent research presented by each approach. <br />
(2) The course aims to help students develop an understanding of what is involved in carrying out independent research in the fields of political science and political theory. The course will guide students through the basic problems of research design in political science/theory, focusing primarily on the problem of identifying a researchable project.<br />
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Other reasons why we study contemporary political analysis include:<br />
To be able to understand some of the key approaches to political analysis<br />
To introduce keys concepts and themes in the analysis of politics.<br />
To teach how to analyze political phenomenon from different perspectives.<br />
To examine and discuss theoretical tools, with which one can make critical analysis of politics.<br />
The most important objective of the course is to expose students to contemporary approaches of political analysis, in order to facilitate their entrance at graduate level.<br />
To be able to appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of a variety of perspectives commonly employed in political analysis <br />
To be able to assess the applicability of various approaches to a variety of research questions.<br />
To have engaged in independent research.<br />
To introduce a variety of modeling strategies that you will see applied in contemporary political science literature. Politics as process has both institutional and non-institutional dimensions. The purpose of this course is to explain the non-institutional political processes and thereby to sensitize the students on informal processes of politics.<br />
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<b>REFERENCES</b><br />
Colin Hay, Political Analysis: A Critical Introduction (New York: Palgrave, 2002). Milton Friedman, “The Methodology of Positive Economics,” in Essays in Positive<br />
Economics (Chicago 1962), 3-43<br />
Maurice Lageux, “Friedman’s `Instrumentalism’ and Constructive Empiricism in<br />
Economics,” Theory and Decision 37: 147-74, 1994<br />
Morris P. Fiorina, “Formal Models in Political Science,” AJPS, 19:1 (February 1975), 133-59<br />
Doug Dion, “The Robustness of the Structure-Induced Equilibrium,” AJPS, 36:2 (May 1992), 462-83<br />
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, “Domestic Opposition and Foreign War,” APSR 84:3 (September 1990), 747-65<br />
Sanford Gordon and Gregory Huber, “On the Electoral Incentives of Criminal Prosecutors,” March 1, 2001 msbookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com15tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3231543326627374196.post-8599443908958166162010-08-29T07:28:00.000-07:002010-08-29T07:28:07.560-07:00THE THEME OF MINE BOYDisease, most often imagined in the past as an external invasion of bacteria or viruses, can also be imagined as "dis-ease," a set of political, economic, and social imbalances that disturb the well-being of people's lives. Today, these imbalances would be termed psychological and psychosomatic diseases, but in a colonial arena, such as early twentieth-century South Africa, these forms of disease were inadvertently perpetuated and ignored. In addition, certain somatic diseases, such as tuberculosis, introduced into South Africa by the Europeans, had unforeseen and often fatal effects on the health of the natives. Tuberculosis, especially, became a peculiarly raced disease. Peter Abrahams fictionally recreates this area of colonial history in his 1946 novel, Mine Boy, which presents us with characters who negotiate the uncertain and often tragic terrain of colonial introduced and induced diseases. In particular, characters confront and deal, as best they can, with somatic, psychological, and psychosomatic diseases in ways that highlight the racist society of colonial South Africa. <br />
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A striking example of the effects of colonization, and especially with respect to the diseases it brought, can be seen in the case of South Africa. For instance, until the mid-nineteenth century, tuberculosis (hereafter TB) was unknown, and there is "much evidence to suggest that TB came to southern and central Africa with white colonisers" (de Beer 3). Before then, people had enough food, were healthy, and were not cramped into overcrowded spaces. Clearly something changed this situation. Gold was discovered on the Witwatersand in 1886, and the history of South Africa changed dramatically as did the history of TB (de Beer 3). The disease was introduced into South Africa by the Europeans at the end of the nineteenth century when miners from Europe flocked to the gold mines to get rich quickly; mining conditions exacerbated the proliferation of this insidious disease, which killed thousands of black South Africans. Today, TB is still one of the biggest killers of blacks in South Africa. (1) Other forms of disease appeared too. Due to the increasingly racist structures of the South African colony, psychological and psychosomatic diseases were common among the native population although the authorities never acknowledged these conditions as diseases. <br />
Pinpointing a definition of disease is no easy matter as the very structure of the word "dis-ease" implies multiple kinds of disturbances that may not all be somatic. Traditionally, in the Western world, disease has been thought of as a bodily contraction of a bacterium or virus, or a condition induced by a genetic disorder or mutation, or the result of a malfunctioning organ. But it should be noted that "dis-ease" can manifest in somatic, psychosomatic, or psychological forms. Indeed, modern Western medicine has, since the latter part of the twentieth century, broadened the definition of disease to describe "any state, organic or psychic, real or imaginary, that disturbs a persons sense of well-being" (Dubos 32). Most important, many Western physicians now realize that when treating a "dis-eased" person, they must take into consideration, in addition to the somatic or physic disturbances, the social factors with which the patient lives, a practice, ironically, long used by traditional African healing systems. It appears, then, that disease is a somewhat slippery concept that could be induced by a plethora of lived conditions and could, perhaps, be defined in the following manner. Disease is a state of being that causes considerable, and often debilitating, distress that may result in a somatic, psychosomatic or psychological disorder; whatever the form of the "dis-ease," the disease itself disallows the sufferer the continuation of life as it was experienced before the affliction. <br />
Peter Abrahams has certainly written an unsung novel here, which is devastatingly simple (in some places too simple), concentrating on the story of Xuma, a young man who has moved from the North of South Africa (Vrededorp) to the hate-filled apartheid world of Johannesburg. Filling it up with supporting characters which are rather cardboard (the black girl who dreams of being white, the drunken South Africans, the sympathetic white man) does not help, but nonetheless instead of spitefully showing us the huge hate Abrahams may hold for the apartheid system, we instead hear the story of Xuma coping in Jo'burg, with all the horrors being just there in the background. Abrahams does not emerge with a conclusion of black superiority and that whites should leave, but through Xuma, we very clearly see that both races should just get along. For anyone with a serious interest in apartheid, this book is a must<br />
This story set in South Africa portrays apartheid through following the life of Xuma, a villager in search of a better life. Xuma first lived in Malay camp where he was offered accommodation by Leah on his first night in the city. After getting a job, he moves to his own house in Vrededorp which was still a slum as Malay camp. <br />
the novel centers around the main character's growing awareness that without respect and a strong sense of self life is hallow and has little meaning. The book's central theme is that when Black or white South Africans view their racially different neighbors as another species, no social mobility or equality is possible and no change is possible. <br />
Through all of this Abraham is able to paint a picture of the resilience of the people who lived with constant discrimination during the apartheid regime. Leah as a stout courageous woman who eked out a living through selling illicit brew. Dladla was a man who was bitter about Leah controlling him and betrays her to the police. Leah found out about it but before she could deal with Dladla, he was found dead in the bush stabbed in the back. Johannes, a strong well built miner, was a timid person who became bold and loud only when drunk. Daddy was never sober and died after being hit by a car. Xuma falls in love with Elizabeth, Leah’s beautiful niece, who doesn’t love him back as she seeks the white man’s way of life. Xuma constantly rejects Maisy who loves him. However, in the end he accepts her and promises to marry her as soon as he gets out of jail as Elizabeth left him. Leah gets sent to jail for nine months after being caught red handed with the illicit brew by the crafty policeman nicknamed the Fox who had been trying to catch her for a long time. She had managed to escape the police dragnet by bribing some policemen who kept her informed on police moves. Johannes and his white boss Chris died under the mine as they tried to prevent it from collapsing. Paddy O’Shea, Xuma’s boss sides with the blacks and is arrested when a riot breaks out in the mine. Xuma flees but later surrenders himself at the police station.<br />
The paper explains how the novel centers around the main character's growing awareness that without respect and a strong sense of self life is hallow and has little meaning. The paper also discusses the book's central theme that when Black or white South Africans view their racially different neighbors as another species, no social mobility or equality is possible and no change is possible When Xuma moves to Johannesberg he is a naïve country boy, but the impact of harsh city life awakens him to the new ways and values of a racially different world.<br />
His vision of a man "without color" a race less society, is shattered by the realities of his under privileged existence.bookshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11843707044733064827noreply@blogger.com11